<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[Svart historia]]></title><description><![CDATA[Svart historia från hela världen, av mig Amat Levin. Följ för att få veta mer om varför svart historia traditionellt har varit undertryckt, varför det är viktigt att ändra på det och vad kunskap om den kan lära oss om idag.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png</url><title>Svart historia</title><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Thu, 04 Jun 2026 08:33:37 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[svarthistoria@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[svarthistoria@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[svarthistoria@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[svarthistoria@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[Påven i historisk ursäkt för det transatlantiska slaveriet]]></title><description><![CDATA[Idag bad p&#229;ve Leo XIV om urs&#228;kt f&#246;r Vatikanens inblanding i den transatlantiska slavhandeln.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/paven-i-historisk-ursakt-for-det</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/paven-i-historisk-ursakt-for-det</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 25 May 2026 12:56:10 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pTX0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3203d99d-170c-4e37-8d09-43c11ec3e041_2880x1920.heic" width="1456" height="971" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">P&#229;ve Leo XIV under pingstm&#228;ssan i Peterskyrkan, den 24 maj 2026.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Idag bad<strong> p&#229;ve Leo XIV</strong> <a href="https://apnews.com/article/pope-apologizes-slavery-role-holy-see-vatican-78df993c5604eb098b19f255b89b3155">om urs&#228;kt</a> f&#246;r Vatikanens inblanding i den transatlantiska slavhandeln. I urs&#228;kten, som framg&#229;r i hans f&#246;rsta encyclika (allts&#229; skrivelse till den samlade katolska kyrkan), kallar han Vatikanens inblanding f&#246;r <em>&#8221;ett s&#229;r i den kristna historien&#8221;</em>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J5UA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F10234435-eb62-441e-b1b8-9cb42554fae3_892x1198.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J5UA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F10234435-eb62-441e-b1b8-9cb42554fae3_892x1198.heic 424w, 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pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">1600-talsportr&#228;tt som f&#246;rest&#228;ller p&#229;ven Nicolaus V (f&#246;dd 1397, d&#246;d 1455), som utf&#228;rdade de p&#229;vliga bullorna <em>Dum Diversas</em> och <em>Romanus Pontifex</em>, vilket innebar kyrkans sanktion f&#246;r Portugals er&#246;vringar och slaveri i Afrika.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Den katolska kyrkan spelade en viktig roll i legimerandet av slaveriet. &#197;r 1452 utlyste exempelvis p&#229;ve <strong>Nicolaus V </strong>den s&#229; kallade <em>Dum Diversas</em>, en p&#229;vlig bulla, som gav kung<strong> Alfons V av Portugal </strong>r&#228;tten att reducera alla &#8221;saracener, hedningar och andra otrogna till evig tr&#228;ldom&#8221;.</p><p>&#197;r 1455 utlyste samma p&#229;ve en ny bulla &#8211;<em> Romanus Pontifex</em> &#8211; som &#228;nnu tydligare specificerade den portugisiske kungens r&#228;tt att invadera och ta &#246;ver omr&#229;den s&#246;der om <strong>Kap Bujur </strong>i nuvarande <strong>V&#228;stsahara</strong>, samt att f&#246;rslava dess icke-kristna inv&#229;nare. I <em>Born in Blackness</em> skriver den amerikanska journalisten <strong>Howard W. French</strong>:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Sammantaget gjorde dessa p&#229;vliga bullor mer &#228;n att ge portugiserna exklusiva r&#228;ttigheter. De signalerade till resten av det kristna Europa att f&#246;rslavandet av subsahariska afrikaner var accepterat och uppmuntrat.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Tidigare p&#229;var, exempelvis <strong>Johannes Paulus II </strong>under ett bes&#246;k i <strong>Kamerun</strong> &#229;r 1985, har bett om urs&#228;kt f&#246;r kristnas inblanding, men detta &#228;r f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen en p&#229;ve uttryckligen ber om urs&#228;kt f&#246;r sj&#228;lva p&#229;veskapets roll i det hela.</p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;9dae80e4-d64f-4460-8878-1b7b9470296f&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;I januari &#229;r 1482 anl&#228;nde en portugisisk flotta till det vi idag k&#228;nner till som Ghana. Ombord fartygen fanns hundratals soldater och flera kanoner, men ocks&#229; murare och diverse byggmaterial, fr&#229;n sm&#229; spikar till stora grundstommar.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:null,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Transatlantiska slaveriet, del 1&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2026-05-07T12:47:03.293Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:196767793,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;e4b4e6f3-22e0-4a64-b6a5-58fb30d4c5da&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&#8221;Det f&#246;rsta som m&#246;tte mig n&#228;r jag kom till kusten var havet och ett slavfartyg, som d&#229; l&#229;g f&#246;r ankare och v&#228;ntade p&#229; sin last. Det fyllde mig med h&#228;pnad, som snart f&#246;rvandlades till skr&#228;ck n&#228;r jag bars ombord. Bes&#228;ttningen unders&#246;kte mig omedelbart f&#246;r att se om jag var frisk, och jag blev nu &#246;vertygad om att jag hade hamnat i en v&#228;rld av onda andar, oc&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:null,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Transatlantiska slaveriet, del 2&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2026-05-13T05:06:37.446Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:197348477,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:1,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><h3>L&#228;s mer:</h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War </em>av Howard W. French (2021) </p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8220;Pope apologizes to Africans for slavery&#8221; av E.J. Dionne Jr. f&#246;r <em>The New York Times</em> (14 augusti, 1985)</p><p>&#8221;Pope Leo XIV makes historic apology for Holy See&#8217;s own role in legitimizing slavery&#8221; av Nicole Winfield och Paolo Santalucia f&#246;r <em>Associated Press</em> (25 maj, 2026)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Transatlantiska slaveriet, del 2]]></title><description><![CDATA[Slaveriets guld&#229;lder]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 13 May 2026 05:06:37 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Det f&#246;rsta som m&#246;tte mig n&#228;r jag kom till kusten var havet och ett slavfartyg, som d&#229; l&#229;g f&#246;r ankare och v&#228;ntade p&#229; sin last. Det fyllde mig med h&#228;pnad, som snart f&#246;rvandlades till skr&#228;ck n&#228;r jag bars ombord. Bes&#228;ttningen unders&#246;kte mig omedelbart f&#246;r att se om jag var frisk, och jag blev nu &#246;vertygad om att jag hade hamnat i en v&#228;rld av onda andar, och att de skulle d&#246;da mig.</em></p><p><em>Deras hy som skiljde sig s&#229; mycket fr&#229;n v&#229;r, deras l&#229;nga h&#229;r och spr&#229;ket de talade &#8211; som var v&#228;ldigt annorlunda &#228;n n&#229;got jag n&#229;nsin h&#246;rt &#8211; bekr&#228;ftade mina tankar.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Lite senare i texten forts&#228;tter vittnesm&#229;let:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;N&#228;r jag tittade runt skeppet och s&#229;g en stor ugn eller kopparkittel, och en m&#228;ngd svarta m&#228;nniskor av varje sort, sammankedjade, var och en av deras ansikten ett uttryck av nedst&#228;mdhet och sorg, tvivlade jag inte l&#228;ngre p&#229; mitt &#246;de; och, ganska &#246;verv&#228;ldigad av fasa och &#229;ngest, f&#246;ll jag or&#246;rlig och svimmade p&#229; d&#228;ck.</em></p><p><em>N&#228;r jag &#229;terh&#228;mtade mig lite s&#229;g jag n&#229;gra svarta m&#228;nniskor om mig, som jag misst&#228;nkte var n&#229;gra av dem som tog mig ombord, och som hade f&#229;tt sin l&#246;n. De pratade med mig f&#246;r att muntra upp mig, men det var f&#246;rg&#228;ves. Jag fr&#229;gade dem om vi inte skulle bli upp&#228;tna av de d&#228;r vita m&#228;nnen med hemska blickar, r&#246;da ansikten och tunt h&#229;r.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>F&#246;rfattaren forts&#228;tter:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Strax d&#228;refter gick de svarta som f&#246;rde mig ombord, och l&#228;mnade mig &#246;vergiven till f&#246;rtvivlan. Jag s&#229;g mig nu ber&#246;vad alla m&#246;jligheter att &#229;terv&#228;nda till mitt hemland, eller till och med de minsta glimt av hopp om att n&#229; stranden.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Men ber&#228;ttelsen &#228;r inte slut d&#228;r:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Jag placerades snart under d&#228;ck, d&#228;r mina n&#228;sborrar m&#246;ttes av n&#229;got jag aldrig upplevt i livet: den avskyv&#228;rda stanken, i kombination med gr&#229;ten, gjorde mig s&#229; sjuk och l&#229;g att jag varken kunde &#228;ta eller hade den minsta lust att smaka p&#229; n&#229;gonting.</em></p><p><em>Jag &#246;nskade nu att den sista v&#228;nnen &#8211; d&#246;den &#8211; skulle avlasta mig; men snart, till min sorg, erbj&#246;d tv&#229; av de vita m&#228;nnen mig mat; och p&#229; min v&#228;gran att &#228;ta, h&#246;ll en av dem fast mig i h&#228;nderna och la mig tv&#228;rs &#246;ver vad jag tror var ankarspelet, och band mina f&#246;tter, medan den andra piskade mig h&#229;rt. Jag hade aldrig upplevt n&#229;got s&#229;dant h&#228;r tidigare.</em></p></blockquote><p>Dessa rader &#228;r skrivna av <strong>Olaudah Equiano o</strong>ch h&#246;r till de allra tidigaste och mest k&#228;nda av vittnesm&#229;len som f&#246;rslavade afrikaner l&#228;mnade efter sig. Det ger en liten inblick, inte bara i v&#229;ldet de utsattes f&#246;r, utan i den konstanta r&#228;dslan. F&#246;rvirringen i att inte veta varf&#246;r man f&#229;ngats in och s&#229;lts, vart man var p&#229; v&#228;g och vad syftet med allt var. L&#228;gg hans namn p&#229; minnet, f&#246;r jag kommer att &#229;terkomma till honom senare i texten.</p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;f2b0f476-5324-4782-93df-7a130bffffa6&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;I januari &#229;r 1482 anl&#228;nde en portugisisk flotta till det vi idag k&#228;nner till som Ghana. Ombord fartygen fanns hundratals soldater och flera kanoner, men ocks&#229; murare och diverse byggmaterial, fr&#229;n sm&#229; spikar till stora grundstommar.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Transatlantiska slaveriet, del 1&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2026-05-07T12:47:03.293Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:196767793,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p><a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1">F&#246;rra delen</a> i min serie om den transatlantiska slavhandeln handlade om <strong>Portugals</strong> kartl&#228;ggning av Afrikas v&#228;stra kust och p&#229;b&#246;rjande av m&#228;nniskohandeln. P&#229; de sm&#229; &#246;arna som portugiserna koloniserat under utforskningen av Afrika &#8211; som <strong>S&#227;o Tom&#233; och Pr&#237;ncipe</strong>, <strong>Madeira</strong> och <strong>Kap Verde</strong> &#8211; anlade man plantager d&#228;r man tvingade f&#246;rslavade afrikaner att arbeta, och vissa av plantagerna, s&#228;rskilt de d&#228;r sockerr&#246;r odlades, b&#246;rjade dra in stora pengar.</p><p>Men 1492, seglandes under spansk flagg, ramlade <strong>Christofer Columbus</strong> &#246;ver <strong>Karibien</strong>, och d&#228;rmed den v&#228;rld som europ&#233;erna snart skulle b&#246;rja kalla <strong>Amerika</strong>. Snart f&#246;ljdes spanjorerna av portugiserna, fransm&#228;nnen och britterna. </p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>De nya omr&#229;den europ&#233;erna kom &#246;ver och er&#246;vrade skapade v&#228;ldiga kommersiella m&#246;jligheter. Ist&#228;llet f&#246;r de sm&#229; &#246;arna i Atlanten eller utanf&#246;r den afrikanska kusten, hade man nu pl&#246;tsligt hittat nya hela v&#228;rldsdelar att l&#228;gga under sig.</p><p>&#196;nnu en g&#229;ng spelade sockerr&#246;r en stor roll. Alla ville &#229;t sockret, men det var en otroligt kr&#228;vande v&#228;xt att odla. Kolonisat&#246;rerna ins&#229;g snabbt att det var i stort sett om&#246;jligt att f&#229; fria arbetare att ta jobb p&#229; sockerplantagen. &#196;ven i Amerika blev l&#246;sningen allts&#229; slavarbetare. Men &#228;ven andra gr&#246;dor kunde odlas med hj&#228;lp av slavarbete, likas&#229; de mineraler och metaller som v&#228;ntade p&#229; att utvinnas ur marken.</p><h3>Ursprungsbefolkningarna f&#246;rg&#246;rs</h3><p>Till en b&#246;rjan f&#246;rslavades de amerikanska ursprungsbefolkningarna. Spanjorerna gick i br&#228;schen och utvecklade ett system som kallades <em>encomienda</em>, d&#228;r den spanska kronan tilldelade s&#228;rskilda kolonisat&#246;rer r&#228;tten att kr&#228;va arbete eller skatt fr&#229;n ursprungsbefolkningen i ett visst omr&#229;de. </p><p>I utbyte lovade kolonisat&#246;ren att &#8221;skydda&#8221; och &#8221;civilisera&#8221; inv&#229;narna. I praktiken blev systemet en form av slaveri d&#229; m&#229;nga kolonisat&#246;rer, efter att de tilldelats ansvaret f&#246;r en grupp urinv&#229;nare, snabbt b&#246;rjade uts&#228;tta dem f&#246;r om&#228;nskligt h&#229;rt arbete och utdelade brutala straff n&#228;r de v&#228;grade lyda order.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic" width="1220" height="1408" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1408,&quot;width&quot;:1220,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:230406,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KndV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd26bf680-9ed4-46ee-918a-a8aa5636aa12_1220x1408.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Bild fr&#229;n <em>Codex Kingsborough</em>, en samling illustrationer av folket i Tepetlaoztoc (nuvarande Mexiko) fr&#229;n omkring 1550, som ber&#228;ttar deras historia och det v&#229;ld som de spanska kolonisat&#246;rerna utsatte dem f&#246;r.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Trots att slaveri av ursprungsinv&#229;narna fortsatte b&#246;rjade europ&#233;erna i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1500-talet att f&#246;redra att importera f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskor fr&#229;n <strong>V&#228;st- och Centralafrika</strong>.</p><p>En anledning var att ursprungsbefolkningarna dog i h&#246;g takt, dels p&#229; grund av kolonisat&#246;rernas v&#229;ldsut&#246;vande, dels till f&#246;ljd av att de f&#246;r f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen exponerades f&#246;r sjukdomar som europ&#233;erna f&#246;rde med sig.</p><p>Smittkoppor, m&#228;ssling, malaria, influensa och flera andra sjukdomar b&#246;rjade spridas snabbt efter europ&#233;ernas landstigning, med katastrofala f&#246;ljder. Miljontals och &#229;ter miljontals ursprungsinv&#229;nare dog och hela samh&#228;llen f&#246;rintades. Med tiden fanns det inte tillr&#228;ckligt med ursprungsinv&#229;nare kvar att f&#246;rslava: efterfr&#229;gan p&#229; slavar var s&#229; pass stor att den kvarvarande ursprungsbefolkningen aldrig hade kunnat m&#246;ta den.</p><h3>Kyrkans legitimering av v&#229;ldet </h3><p>Den katolska kyrkan spelade ocks&#229; en roll. &#197;r 1452 hade p&#229;ve <strong>Nicolaus V </strong>utlyst den s&#229; kallade <em>Dum Diversas</em>, en p&#229;vlig bulla, som gav kung <strong>Alfons V av Portugal</strong> r&#228;tten att reducera alla &#8221;saracener, hedningar och andra otrogna till evig tr&#228;ldom&#8221;. </p><p>&#197;r 1455 utlyste samma p&#229;ve en ny bulla &#8211; <em>Romanus Pontifex</em> &#8211; som &#228;nnu tydligare specificerade den portugisiske kungens r&#228;tt att invadera och ta &#246;ver omr&#229;den s&#246;der om <strong>Kap Bujur</strong> i nuvarande <strong>V&#228;stsahara</strong>, samt att f&#246;rslava dess icke-kristna inv&#229;nare. I <em>Born in Blackness </em>skriver den amerikanska journalisten <strong>Howard W. French</strong>:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Sammantaget gjorde dessa p&#229;vliga bullor mer &#228;n att ge portugiserna exklusiva r&#228;ttigheter. De signalerade till resten av det kristna Europa att f&#246;rslavandet av subsahariska afrikaner var accepterat och uppmuntrat.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic" width="892" height="1198" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1198,&quot;width&quot;:892,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:265660,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5Slz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc15e21b0-f3f5-40c6-b700-f6670f4016c7_892x1198.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">1600-talsportr&#228;tt som f&#246;rest&#228;ller p&#229;ven Nicolaus V (f&#246;dd 1397, d&#246;d 1455), som utf&#228;rdade de p&#229;vliga bullorna <em>Dum Diversas</em> och <em>Romanus Pontifex</em>, vilket innebar kyrkans sanktion f&#246;r Portugals er&#246;vringar och slaveri i Afrika.</figcaption></figure></div><h3>Varf&#246;r svarta afrikaner blev m&#229;ltavlor</h3><p>&#196;ven individer p&#229;verkade skiftet till att i h&#246;gre utstr&#228;ckning f&#246;rslava afrikaner. En av dem var <strong>Bartolom&#233; de las Casas</strong>, en spanjor som steg i land i den nya v&#228;rlden bara runt tio &#229;r efter Columbus landstigning. </p><p>Det var &#229;r 1502 som De las Casas kom till <strong>Hispaniola</strong> och till en b&#246;rjan gjorde han som m&#229;nga andra spanska kolonisat&#246;rer i Karibien: han gav sig h&#228;n &#229;t &#246;vergreppen p&#229; lokalbefolkningen. Han kom att bli en <em>encomendero</em>, en av de som tilldelades ansvaret f&#246;r en grupp ursprungsinv&#229;nare, och skulle senare &#228;ven pr&#228;stvigas.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic" width="1456" height="1190" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1190,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1250909,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bmFy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b11186c-ffe6-45c0-b7e3-d75579b8a74c_1920x1569.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration av nederl&#228;ndarna Joos van Winghe och Theodor de Bry som skildrar de brutala spanska &#246;vergreppen mot den kubanska ursprungsbefolkningen. Fr&#229;n 1598 &#229;rs latinska &#246;vers&#228;ttning av Bartolom&#233; de las Casas bok <em>La Brev&#237;sima relaci&#243;n de la destrucci&#243;n de las Indias</em>.</figcaption></figure></div><p>En av kampanjerna han deltog i var den spanska er&#246;vringen av dagens <strong>Kuba</strong>. Han hade redan h&#246;rt andra f&#246;rd&#246;ma behandlingen av ursprungsinv&#229;narna, men det var de brutala scenerna som utspelades p&#229; Kuba som slutligen fick honom att t&#228;nka om. I en av de m&#229;nga texter han l&#228;mnade efter sig, citerad i samlingsverket <em>Indian Freedom: The Cause of Bartolom&#233; de las Casas, 1484-1566</em>, skrev han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Vid ett tillf&#228;lle kom indianerna ut f&#246;r att h&#228;lsa p&#229; oss med mat och presenter, de kom tio ligor fr&#229;n deras stora by. Sedan, n&#228;r vi kom dit, gav de oss fisk i &#246;verfl&#246;d, br&#246;d, mat, s&#229; l&#229;ngt deras skafferi r&#228;ckte. Helt pl&#246;tsligt tog dj&#228;vulen &#246;ver de kristna. Mitt framf&#246;r mina &#246;gon h&#246;gg dem, utan provokation eller orsak, ihj&#228;l mer &#228;n tre tusen sj&#228;lar som satt framf&#246;r oss &#8211; m&#228;n, kvinnor, barn. Jag s&#229;g grymhet i en skala som ingen levande varelse n&#229;gonsin har sett eller f&#246;rv&#228;ntar sig att se.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Lite senare i texten forts&#228;tter han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Det fanns en tj&#228;nsteman p&#229; &#246;n som tilldelades trehundra indianer. Efter tre m&#229;naders tid hade han arbetat ihj&#228;l tv&#229;hundrasjuttio av dem i gruvorna. Trettio &#246;verlevde, bara en tiondel. De gav honom ytterligare trehundra, och mer, och han d&#246;dade dem, mer och han d&#246;dade dem, tills han dog och dj&#228;vulen tog hans sj&#228;l. P&#229; tre eller fyra m&#229;nader, under min vistelse d&#228;r, dog sjutusen barn av hunger eftersom deras f&#246;r&#228;ldrar hade dragits iv&#228;g f&#246;r att arbeta i gruvorna. Jag s&#229;g andra saker som var lika f&#246;rf&#228;rliga.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>P&#229; 1510-talet b&#246;rjade Bartolom&#233; de las Casas ist&#228;llet propagera f&#246;r ursprungsinv&#229;narnas sak och han &#229;terv&#228;nde till Europa f&#246;r att argumentera f&#246;r upph&#246;randet av <em>encomienda</em>-systemet. Men en av hans l&#246;sningar f&#246;r att minska ursprungsbefolkningens lidande var att ist&#228;llet propagera f&#246;r importerandet av f&#246;rslavade afrikaner. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic" width="1200" height="1598" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1598,&quot;width&quot;:1200,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:225800,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ejCS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8832a1c3-e9b7-444b-98ff-6ce20b026f19_1200x1598.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">V&#228;ggm&#229;lning som f&#246;rest&#228;ller Bartolom&#233; de Las Casas. Av konstn&#228;ren Constantino Brumidi &#229;r 1876. M&#229;lningen finns i Kapitolium i Washington, D.C.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Genom sina skriverier och sitt arbete blev Bartolom&#233; de las Casas inflytelserik och under de kommande decennierna bidrog han till att flera lag&#228;ndringar inf&#246;rdes som reglerade den h&#229;rda behandlingen av ursprungsinv&#229;narna. Mot slutet av sitt liv &#228;ndrade sig Bartolom&#233; de las Casas igen och fastslog att alla former av slaveri, inklusive av afrikaner, var f&#246;rkastligt.</p><p>Historiker &#228;r oense om hur pass stor roll de las Casas spelade i att popularisera f&#246;rslavandet av afrikaner. Den transatlantiska m&#228;nniskohandeln hade trots allt redan p&#229;b&#246;rjats. Men hans tidiga skriverier var knappast till afrikaners f&#246;rdel.</p><p>En annan uppenbar orsak till att europeiska kolonisat&#246;rer b&#246;rjade f&#246;rslava allt fler afrikaner var att V&#228;st- och Centralafrika var mest l&#228;gligt och bekv&#228;mt. Det berodde dels p&#229; att krig mellan afrikanska riken i dessa regioner skapade en tillf&#246;rsel av m&#228;nniskor att k&#246;pa, dels p&#229; ren geografi. Det var exempelvis betydligt mer praktiskt f&#246;r portugisiska m&#228;nniskohandlare i <strong>Brasilien</strong> att importera sina f&#246;rslavade fr&#229;n dagens <strong>Angola</strong> &#8211; en b&#229;tf&#228;rd rakt &#246;ver havet &#8211; &#228;n att f&#246;rs&#246;ka k&#246;pa m&#228;nniskor fr&#229;n till exempel Mellan&#246;stern eller Asien.</p><p>Eftersom Afrika, Europa och Asien &#8211; det som ibland kallas f&#246;r &#8221;den gamla v&#228;rlden&#8221; &#8211; hade en l&#228;ngre historia av kontakt med varandra var afrikaner dessutom mer motst&#229;ndskraftiga mot sjukdomarna. M&#229;nga hade &#228;ven en mer upparbetad resistens mot tropiska sjukdomar.</p><p>&#196;nnu en anledning till att det blev mer popul&#228;rt att f&#246;rslava afrikaner var f&#246;r att ursprungsbefolkningen hade lokala familjeband och existerande lojaliteter. De hade intim kunskap om landet, vilket gjorde det l&#228;ttare f&#246;r dem att fly och organisera uppror. Slavhandlare bed&#246;mde att det var mer effektivt att slita upp m&#228;nniskor fr&#229;n sina hem och h&#229;lla dem f&#229;ngna p&#229; platser l&#229;ngt borta. &#196;ven om f&#246;rslavade afrikaner lyckades rymma fr&#229;n sina plantage i Amerika markerade Atlanten ett gigantiskt hinder f&#246;r dem att ta sig hem.</p><h3>Fler l&#228;nder ger sig in i slavhandeln</h3><p>Kyrkan hade en fortsatt central roll i den nya framv&#228;xande v&#228;rldsordningen. &#197;r 1494 sl&#246;t Spanien och Portugal en ny &#246;verenskommelse som byggde vidare p&#229; <em>Alc&#225;&#231;ovasf&#246;rdraget</em>, som jag skrev om i del ett: det s&#229; kallade <em>Tordesillasf&#246;rdraget</em>. </p><p>I den nya &#246;verenskommelsen delade l&#228;nderna upp sina nya uppt&#228;ckter mellan sig. En linje drogs v&#228;ster om Kap Verde-&#246;arna: portugiserna hade anspr&#229;k &#246;ster om linjen medan spanjorerna fick r&#228;tt till uppt&#228;ckterna v&#228;ster om den. &#197;r 1506 ratificerades avtalet av p&#229;ve <strong>Julius II</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic" width="1280" height="756" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:756,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:67911,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HnR8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe298bef3-cf07-4ea5-a699-77008bb7c060_1280x756.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar hur Portugal och Spanien, i samband med Tordesillasf&#246;rdraget &#229;r 1494, delade upp sina nya uppt&#228;ckter mellan sig.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Detta var en fantastisk l&#246;sning f&#246;r de tv&#229; rivalerna, men gjorde knappast &#246;vriga europeiska l&#228;nder n&#246;jda. Ett uppenbart problem uppstod dessutom n&#228;r kyrkan reformerades i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1500-talet och splittrades i tv&#229; grenar: den protestantiska och den katolska. Nya protestantiska stater brydde sig inte om vad p&#229;ven hade beslutat och t&#228;nkte knappast l&#229;ta portugiserna och spanjorerna f&#229; ensamr&#228;tt p&#229; alla uppt&#228;ckter. &#196;ven i katolska <strong>Frankrike</strong> ifr&#229;gasatte kung <strong>Frans I</strong> p&#229;vens mandat att dela upp v&#228;rlden.</p><p>S&#229; under 1500- och framf&#246;rallt 1600-talet fick Portugal och Spanien s&#228;llskap av giganter som England och Frankrike i den transatlantiska m&#228;nniskohandeln, men &#228;ven av mindre nationer som <strong>Nederl&#228;nderna</strong>, <strong>Danmark</strong> och <strong><a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska?utm_source=publication-search">Sverige</a></strong>.</p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;deb1e7c8-5564-468f-bcee-febadb2b21b5&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Fram tills relativt nyligen har id&#233;n funnits, b&#229;de nationellt och internationellt, att Sverige aldrig har besudlats av kolonialismens eller den transatlantiska slavhandelns brott. Ett led i den romantiserade bild&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Sveriges roll i den transatlantiska slavhandeln&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-09T19:59:33.919Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:175742491,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p>Systemets mekanismer tydligg&#246;rs av dess alternativa namn: <em>triangelhandeln</em>. I Europa lastades fartyg med exempelvis vapen, krut, vin, metaller och kl&#228;desplagg och seglades till v&#228;st- och centralafrikanska hamnar, str&#228;nder och flodmynningar d&#228;r varorna byttes mot f&#246;rslavade m&#228;n, kvinnor och barn. </p><p>I skeppens klaustrofobiska lastutrymmen f&#246;rvarades de under monstru&#246;sa f&#246;rh&#229;llanden under den l&#229;nga f&#228;rden &#246;ver Atlanten. </p><p>N&#228;r fartygen n&#229;dde hamnar i Nord- och Sydamerika s&#229;ldes afrikanerna och efter reng&#246;ring fylldes skeppen med socker, tobak och rom innan de &#229;terv&#228;nde till Europa. </p><h3>F&#229;ngstens fasor</h3><p>De f&#246;rslavades lidande b&#246;rjade tidigt. M&#229;nga av offren var krigsf&#229;ngar och hade redan hemma i Afrika varit med om n&#229;got av det v&#228;rsta vi som m&#228;nniskor kan uts&#228;ttas f&#246;r: krig. Andra var kidnappade, d&#246;mda kriminella, utst&#246;tta eller p&#229; andra s&#228;tt o&#246;nskade och hade allts&#229; ocks&#229; redan varit med om n&#229;got potentiellt traumatiskt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic" width="400" height="129" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:129,&quot;width&quot;:400,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:17663,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!b5v5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb7f0fb99-4a30-4888-a2f3-7069ddaa8ace_400x129.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ritning fr&#229;n 1849 f&#246;rest&#228;llande en v&#228;stafrikansk kanot som transporterar f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskor fr&#229;n stranden till slavskeppet. Fr&#229;n Manuscript, Archives and Rare Book Library vid Emory University i Atlanta, Georgia.</figcaption></figure></div><p>M&#229;nga togs dessutom till f&#229;ngna l&#229;ngt in&#229;t landet och tvingades att, under brutala f&#246;rh&#229;llanden, marschera ut mot europ&#233;ernas kustfort. Str&#228;ckorna kunde vara l&#229;nga, str&#228;cka sig genom sv&#229;rgenomtr&#228;nglig terr&#228;ng och ta m&#229;nader att g&#229;, och de var fastkedjade i varandra under marschen. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic" width="1024" height="683" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:683,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:164651,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YZny!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb94cb69b-c8cd-4c3b-833e-82719502db84_1024x683.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">En av f&#228;ngelseh&#229;lorna i Elmina Castle i Ghana, d&#228;r de f&#246;rslavade sp&#228;rrades in medan de v&#228;ntade p&#229; att lastas ombord p&#229; skeppen till Amerika. Elmina Castle &#228;r bara ett av m&#229;nga slavfort som fortfarande st&#229;r kvar l&#228;ngs den v&#228;st- och centralafrikanska kusten.</figcaption></figure></div><p>V&#228;l p&#229; plats vid kusten s&#229;ldes de &#246;verlevande och br&#228;nnm&#228;rktes innan de st&#228;ngdes in i fortens katakomber eller f&#246;rvaringsh&#229;lor, t&#228;tt tillsammans, utan ljusinsl&#228;pp, med v&#228;ldigt begr&#228;nsad ventilation och med en skoningsl&#246;s tropisk hetta. Hundratals, &#228;nda upp till tusen personer, kunde vara inst&#228;ngda i samma h&#229;la. D&#228;r kunde de vara i flera m&#229;nader i v&#228;ntan p&#229; att slavfartygen skulle dyka upp vid horisonten.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic" width="600" height="547" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:547,&quot;width&quot;:600,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:91731,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O_go!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F787f3028-3f93-4f16-a739-137d5ddcd659_600x547.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ett s&#229; kallat d&#246;dsrum i Elmina Castle. H&#228;r sp&#228;rrades upproriska f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskor in utan mat och vatten och i skoningsl&#246;s tropisk hetta. D&#246;rren &#246;ppnades inte f&#246;rr&#228;n de f&#246;rslavade var d&#246;da.</figcaption></figure></div><h3>Terrorn p&#229; havet</h3><p>V&#228;l ombord skeppen packades de f&#246;rslavade t&#228;tt ihop under d&#228;ck och kedjades fast i varandra. F&#246;r att maximera vinsten tilldelades varje f&#246;rslavad person ett s&#229; litet utrymme som m&#246;jligt. De exakta m&#229;tten varierade mellan skeppen men var i regel s&#229; pass sm&#229; att man var tvungen att huka eller ligga f&#246;r att f&#229; plats.</p><p>I <em>Africa: A Biography of the Continent </em>skriver exempelvis den brittiske f&#246;rfattaren <strong>John Reader </strong>om hur <strong>Royal Africa Company</strong>, ett brittiskt f&#246;retag som var involverat i slavhandeln, dikterade att utrymmena skulle se ut &#229;r 1713. Per f&#246;rslavad person skulle utrymmet vara:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;152 centimeter p&#229; l&#228;ngden, 27 centimeter p&#229; bredden och 58 centimeter p&#229; h&#246;jden.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Det &#228;r allts&#229; betydligt mindre &#228;n en vanlig gravkista.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic" width="1280" height="899" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:899,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:402870,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!uix1!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1be3f41b-157e-4e54-a2ae-0673b54bcfd7_1280x899.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ritning f&#246;rest&#228;llande det engelska slavskeppet  Brooks anv&#228;nde i slavhandeln p&#229; 1780-talet. Ritningen kom att spela en viktig roll i att v&#228;cka opinion f&#246;r antislaverir&#246;relsen i England. Fr&#229;n National Maritime Museum i London.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det finns m&#228;ngder av vittnesm&#229;l om hur barbarisk f&#228;rden &#246;ver Atlanten var. Ett av de k&#228;ndaste kommer fr&#229;n Olaudah Equiano, mannen vars citat den h&#228;r texten inleddes med. Enligt Equianos egen ber&#228;ttelse var han bara ett barn n&#228;r han p&#229; mitten av 1700-talet kidnappades tillsammans med sin syster i det som idag &#228;r <strong>Nigeria</strong>. Syskonen separerades, marscherades ut mot kusten och s&#229;ldes som slavar.</p><p>Olaudah Equiano &#228;r ocks&#229; k&#228;nd som <strong>Gustavus Vassa</strong>, vilket var slavnamnet som hans nya &#228;gare gav honom, men det &#228;r inte k&#228;nt varf&#246;r &#228;garen valde just det namnet, som ju har en uppenbar likhet med den svenske 1500-talskungen<strong> Gustav Vasa</strong>.</p><p>Det som &#228;r allra mest utm&#228;rkande med Equiano &#228;r att han, efter &#229;ratal i slaveri, hade den s&#228;llsynta turen att hamna hos en &#228;gare som till&#228;t honom att k&#246;pa sig fri, vilket han ocks&#229; gjorde &#229;r 1766. Han hamnade tids nog i England d&#228;r han &#229;r 1789 gav ut boken <em>The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African</em>. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic" width="481" height="753" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:753,&quot;width&quot;:481,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:137325,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gbHb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5fd77bf1-e3a5-44cf-ac66-50a47f008b73_481x753.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Olaudah Equiano p&#229; omslaget till sin bok <em>The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African</em>, publicerad 1789.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det var ett vittnesm&#229;l med monumentala konsekvenser och som blev en grundpelare i den framv&#228;xande anti-slaveri-r&#246;relsen. I boken redog&#246;r han bland annat om f&#228;rden &#246;ver Atlanten:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Medan vi befann oss l&#228;ngs kusten var stanken i lastutrymmet s&#229; intolerabelt outh&#228;rdligt att det var skadligt att vara d&#228;rinne, och n&#229;gra av oss hade f&#229;tt till&#229;telse att komma upp p&#229; d&#228;ck f&#246;r att andas den friska luften. Men nu n&#228;r hela fartygets last var inst&#228;ngda tillsammans blev stanken fullkomligt pl&#229;gsam.</em></p><p><em>Inst&#228;ngdheten och v&#228;rmen &#8211; i kombination med att fartyget var s&#229; fullpackat att man knappt kunde v&#228;nda p&#229; sig &#8211; kv&#228;vde oss n&#228;stan. Det h&#228;r producerade kopi&#246;sa svettningar, s&#229; att luften snart inte blev l&#228;mplig att andas, p&#229; grund av en variation av pl&#229;gsamma lukter, och frammanade sjukdomar bland slavarna, som m&#229;nga av dem dog och p&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt blev offer f&#246;r k&#246;parnas taktl&#246;sa girighet.</em></p><p><em>Den h&#228;r miserabla situationen f&#246;rv&#228;rrades ytterligare av skavs&#229;ren fr&#229;n kedjorna, som nu blivit outh&#228;rdliga, och smutsen fr&#229;n dassen och som barnen ofta f&#246;ll in och n&#228;stan kv&#228;des i. Kvinnornas skrik och de d&#246;endes j&#228;mmer gjorde hela scenen n&#228;stan ot&#228;nkbart fasansfull.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>I boken skriver han ocks&#229; om hur vissa f&#246;rslavade hellre sl&#228;ngde sig mot en s&#228;ker d&#246;d &#246;verbord &#228;n att stanna kvar p&#229; fartygen. Att m&#228;ngder av m&#228;nniskor dumpades fr&#229;n slavskeppen &#8211; dels s&#229;dana som hoppade sj&#228;lvmant i ett sj&#228;lvmord men ocks&#229; s&#229;dana som dog eller d&#246;dats av andra sk&#228;l och, s&#229; att s&#228;ga, begravdes i vattnet &#8211; gjorde att slavskeppen ofta f&#246;ljdes av hajar som kalasade p&#229; kropparna. Enligt andra vittnesm&#229;l kunde man k&#228;nna stanken av ett slavskepp p&#229; l&#229;ng v&#228;g.</p><p>Gula febern, tuberkulos, magsjuka, magparasiter och dysenteri frodades i skeppens tr&#229;nga utrymmen, och maten och vattnet de f&#246;rslavade fick var i s&#229;dana sm&#229; m&#228;ngder att de knappt klarade sig. Under of&#246;rutsedda h&#228;ndelser som stormar eller att fartygen &#229;kte vilse kunde hela laster av f&#246;rslavade dumpas &#246;ver bord f&#246;r att ransonerna skulle r&#228;cka till bes&#228;ttningen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic" width="956" height="1500" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;width&quot;:956,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:223216,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P0t8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd8a15328-7594-48a6-8bf4-e54575404b7b_956x1500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Alexander Falconbridges <em>An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa</em> (1788), ett viktigt bidrag till anti-slaveri-r&#246;relsen.</figcaption></figure></div><p><strong>Alexander Falconbridge </strong>var en ber&#246;md brittisk kirurg som tj&#228;nade ombord p&#229; slavskepp under fyra resor p&#229; 1780-talet, och som senare blev en av anti-slaveri-r&#246;relsens f&#246;rk&#228;mpar. &#197;r 1788 gav han ut boken <em>An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa</em> d&#228;r han redogjorde f&#246;r vad han hade sett. Falconbridge skrev:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;N&#228;r de svarta v&#228;grar inta n&#228;ring har jag sett hur kol fr&#229;n elden, gl&#246;dande het, har placerats i en spade och f&#246;rts s&#229; n&#228;ra deras l&#228;ppar att dem br&#228;nns. Det har ackompanjerats av hot om att de kommer att tvingas sv&#228;lja kolen om de forts&#228;tter att v&#228;gra &#228;ta.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Lite senare skriver Falconbridge om konsekvenserna av bristen p&#229; frisk luft i lastutrymmet d&#228;r de f&#246;rslavade f&#246;rvarades. Han skriver att vissa av fartygen var utrustade med en slags &#246;ppningar vid sidan av skeppen och som ledde frisk luft ner till slavarna, men att ov&#228;der eller h&#246;ga v&#229;gor ofta fick &#246;ppningarna att st&#228;ngas. Han beskriver ett s&#229;dant tillf&#228;lle fr&#229;n en av hans resor:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8220;N&#228;r de var i den h&#228;r situationen gick jag regelbundet ner till dem, tills deras rum blev s&#229; extremt varmt att vara i att det bara gick att st&#229; ut med det under en v&#228;ldigt kort period. Men den &#246;verdrivna hettan var inte det enda som gjorde deras situation outh&#228;rdlig. D&#228;cket, vilket utgjorde golvet i deras rum, var s&#229; t&#228;ckt av blodet och slemmet som uts&#246;ndrats av dem som ett resultat av refluxsjukdomen, att det s&#229;g ut som ett slakthus. M&#228;nniskans fantasi &#228;r inte kapabel att f&#246;rest&#228;lla sig en mer f&#246;rskr&#228;cklig och vederv&#228;rdig situation.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Med dessa vittnesm&#229;l &#228;r det ingen &#246;verraskning att d&#246;dligheten var h&#246;g. En vanlig uppskattning &#228;r att mellan 10 och 20 procent av de f&#246;rslavade dog under f&#228;rden &#246;ver Atlanten.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic" width="620" height="768" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:768,&quot;width&quot;:620,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:78276,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!acnp!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F86e7d229-920b-486c-93f2-b0724f3c4c4f_620x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ritning fr&#229;n 1822 som f&#246;rest&#228;ller det franska slavskeppet Vigilante. Fr&#229;n John Carter Brown-biblioteke vid Brown University i Providence, Rhode Island.</figcaption></figure></div><p>M&#229;nga har sett illustrationerna &#246;ver skeppen som visar hur t&#228;tt de f&#246;rslavade packades p&#229; fartygen. Men n&#229;got som ofta g&#229;r f&#246;rlorat &#228;r att de inte &#8221;bara&#8221; tvingades leva s&#229; under veckorna det tog att korsa Atlanten. Ofta kunde de vara inst&#228;ngda under d&#228;ck i m&#229;nader medan skeppen befann sig strax utanf&#246;r den afrikanska kusten, i v&#228;ntan p&#229; att fartygen skulle lastas p&#229; med ytterligare slavar. </p><p>F&#246;r att maximera vinsten skulle skeppen fyllas till bredden &#8211; m&#228;nniskohandlarna ville inte &#229;ka med halvfulla fartyg &#8211; och skeppen kunde d&#228;rf&#246;r l&#228;gga ankare och v&#228;nta eller l&#229;ngsamt &#229;ka mellan olika slavhamnar l&#228;ngs Afrikas kust, innan de till slut begav sig av.</p><h3>Ett liv i slaveri</h3><p>N&#228;r skeppen n&#229;dde n&#229;gon av Amerikas hamnar tv&#228;ttades de f&#246;rslavade och gjordes redo f&#246;r f&#246;rs&#228;ljning p&#229; nytt. F&#246;rs&#228;ljningen skedde inte alltid vid kusten utan kunde kr&#228;va att de f&#246;rslavade &#229;terigen tvingades marschera l&#229;nga distanser in&#229;t landet. De som &#246;verlevde denna fruktansv&#228;rda resa och behandling, fr&#229;n Afrika till den nya v&#228;rlden, hade d&#228;refter ett liv i slaveri att v&#228;nta.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic" width="710" height="472" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xae8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2bbdc91-6e31-47c4-be05-9a020376054e_710x472.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The Door of No Return, ett monument i Ouidah, Benin, till&#228;gnat dem som f&#246;rslavades och skeppades d&#228;rifr&#229;n. Foto av Rachel Carbonell.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Efter att ha s&#229;lts kunde de f&#246;rslavade, f&#246;rutom att slita p&#229; plantage och i gruvor, ocks&#229; tvingas arbeta som herdar, fiskare, snickare, kockar, betj&#228;nter, vedhuggare, sj&#246;m&#228;n: de kunde ha alla m&#246;jliga olika jobb.</p><p>Hotet om v&#229;ld var konstant. Att jobba f&#246;r l&#229;ngsamt eller slarvigt, f&#246;rs&#246;ka l&#228;ra sig att l&#228;sa, praktisera sin ursprungliga tro, umg&#229;s med fel person, f&#246;rs&#246;ka rymma &#8211; allt straffades med de mest ohyggliga metoder. &#196;ven sexuella &#246;vergrepp p&#229; f&#246;rslavade skedde frekvent, fr&#229;n tillf&#229;ngatagandet i Afrika, till f&#228;rden &#246;ver Atlanten, till den nya tillvaron i Amerika.</p><h3>Pengar, v&#229;ld och motst&#229;nd</h3><p>F&#246;r de v&#228;sterl&#228;ndska kolonialmakterna i Amerika var slaveriet s&#228;llsynt lukrativt. De fick tillg&#229;ng till en massiv arbetskraft som de kunde tvinga jobba orimligt h&#229;rt utan betalning. Dessutom producerade arbetskraften infrastruktur men ocks&#229; produkter att handla med och exportera. </p><p>P&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt v&#228;xte de nya staterna bokstavligen fram p&#229; de f&#246;rslavades axlar och ryggar, samtidigt som man hemma i Europa byggde ett v&#228;lst&#229;nd p&#229; pengarna som de f&#246;rslavades arbete och lidande genererade.<br><br>Hos de inblandade afrikanska parterna fanns det skilda sk&#228;l till att s&#228;lja m&#228;nniskor till europ&#233;erna. F&#246;r vissa kunde det vara ett &#8221;praktiskt&#8221; s&#228;tt att g&#246;ra sig av med d&#246;mda kriminella, eller en grannbefolkning man historiskt varit fiende med. F&#246;r andra kunde det vara av ren desperation att inte sj&#228;lv f&#246;rslavas. I desto fler fall var det klassiska drivkrafter som ren girighet eller ett s&#228;tt att ut&#246;ka sin makt eller sina landgr&#228;nser.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Den o&#228;ndliga internationella efterfr&#229;gan p&#229; svarta slavar fick konflikter mellan afrikanska riken att f&#246;rst&#228;rkas eller bryta ut. Vissa afrikanska kungad&#246;men som var inblandade i slavhandeln f&#246;rklarade krig mot svagare grannar f&#246;r chansen att s&#228;lja dess inv&#229;nare, och just skjutvapnen som europ&#233;erna s&#229;lde till afrikanerna i utbyte mot m&#228;nniskor blev s&#228;rskilt destabiliserande. </p><p>Skjutvapnen blev ytterligare ett incitament f&#246;r afrikanska kungad&#246;men att bli en del av slavindustrin. Slavhandeln skapade st&#228;ndigt nya konflikter, och konflikterna skapade i sin tur &#228;nnu fler flyktingar och krigsf&#229;ngar som kunde s&#228;ljas in i slaveriet.</p><p>N&#228;r man pratar om de afrikaner som var villiga deltagare i handeln beh&#246;ver man ocks&#229; n&#228;mna alla de som motsatte sig den. Vanliga s&#228;tt att g&#246;ra motst&#229;nd p&#229; var att afrikanska samh&#228;llen byggde f&#246;rsvarsst&#228;llningar och uppr&#228;ttade varningssystem. Ibland kunde hela byar f&#246;rflytta sig till mer sv&#229;r&#229;tkomliga regioner in&#229;t landet. P&#229; vissa h&#229;ll, som i dagens <a href="https://open.spotify.com/episode/4T0QyrvwiifGC5xXyic9i2?si=f36f250123134af1">Kongo</a> och <a href="https://open.spotify.com/episode/30TU9vgY4BKNMAUYKRFR8P?si=2ba74176d5e24499">Angola</a>, br&#246;t fullskaliga krig ut mellan afrikanska och europeiska l&#228;nder &#246;ver fr&#229;gan om slaveriet.</p><p>De som f&#246;rslavades gjorde &#228;ven de sj&#228;lvklart motst&#229;nd genom att exempelvis rymma, v&#228;gra arbeta, f&#246;rs&#246;ka sl&#229;ss eller ta sj&#228;lvmord, och detta motst&#229;nd kunde ske n&#228;r som helst, fr&#229;n att de f&#229;ngades in i Afrika till efter att de s&#229;lts in i slaveri i Amerika.</p><h3>Rasismens maskineri</h3><p>Id&#233;n om att hitta &#8221;b&#246;rjan&#8221; p&#229; rasism &#228;r n&#229;got som l&#228;nge har fascinerat b&#229;de historiker och antropologer. &#196;r rasism n&#229;got medf&#246;tt hos m&#228;nniskan, en f&#246;ljd av att vi &#228;r programmerade att vara r&#228;dda eller misst&#228;nksamma mot det ok&#228;nda? Eller &#228;r rasism n&#229;got vi l&#228;r oss? Fr&#229;gan &#228;r komplicerad och beror inte minst p&#229; hur man definierar rasism, f&#246;rdomar, diskriminering och s&#229; vidare.</p><p>Men man kan med stor s&#228;kerhet i alla fall s&#228;ga att rasism mot svarta och det transatlantiska slaveriet &#228;r t&#228;tt sammankopplade &#8211; de tv&#229; sakerna p&#229;verkade och st&#228;rkte varandra. </p><p>Att svarta gjordes till slavar gjorde att de med tiden s&#229;gs p&#229; som l&#228;gre st&#229;ende varelser. Och att de s&#229;gs p&#229; som l&#228;gre st&#229;ende varelser gjorde det mer legitimt att f&#246;rslava dem. </p><p>Svarta ans&#229;gs vara gudl&#246;sa hedningar och ociviliserade barbarer, och i europ&#233;ers &#246;gon blev de d&#228;rf&#246;r naturliga m&#229;ltavlor. Europ&#233;er kan ha haft rasistiska tankar om svarta m&#228;nniskor &#228;ven tidigare, men det var under det transatlantiska slaveriet som id&#233;erna bef&#228;stes och institutionaliserades.</p><h3>Slaveri och kapitalism</h3><p>Den &#246;kade efterfr&#229;gan p&#229; &#8221;den nya v&#228;rldens&#8221; varor kr&#228;vde att europeiska kolonisat&#246;rer tog mer land i anspr&#229;k f&#246;r att h&#229;lla tillr&#228;ckligt h&#246;g produktionstakt, vilket i sin tur fordrade en allt st&#246;rre arbetskraft och skapade en n&#228;ra outt&#246;mlig aptit f&#246;r nya slavar.</p><p>Triangeln som transporterna bildade blev till ett hjul som fortsatte snurra i kapitalismens namn. Det &#228;r en av den transatlantiska slavhandelns mest utm&#228;rkande egenskaper. </p><p>Som konstaterat i del ett h&#246;rde slaveri till vardagen i m&#229;nga delar av v&#228;rlden vid den h&#228;r tiden, och s&#229; &#228;ven i Afrika, men detta var en ny typ av slavhandel, en som var djupt rotad i den framv&#228;xande kapitalismens st&#228;ndiga jakt p&#229; tillv&#228;xt och &#246;kade int&#228;kter. </p><p>De unga staterna p&#229; andra sidan Atlanten kom att bli regelr&#228;tta slavnationer, d&#228;r slavarbetet utgjorde en central och grundl&#228;ggande del av samh&#228;llena och ekonomierna.</p><p>Det finns de historiker som menar att Amerika, varken Nord- eller Syd-, hade kunnat koloniseras fullt ut utan slavarbete. Eller att det &#229;tminstone hade tagit betydligt l&#228;ngre tid. I <em>Freedom: The Overthrow of the Slave Empires </em>skriver exempelvis historikern <strong>James Walvin</strong> f&#246;ljande:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8220;Av alla m&#228;nniskor som landsteg i Amerika f&#246;re 1820, transporterades 80 procent ombord de atlantiska slavskeppen. Afrikanska slavar var de viktigaste pionj&#228;rerna inom stora omr&#229;den i Amerika.<br><br>El&#228;ndet och lidandet p&#229; slavskeppen, som f&#246;rst avsl&#246;jades i stor utstr&#228;ckning i slutet av 1700-talet, har hems&#246;kt allm&#228;nhetens fantasi sedan dess. Trots slavskeppens fruktansv&#228;rda d&#246;dlighet och den skada de orsakade de &#246;verlevande, lade den atlantiska slavhandeln grunden f&#246;r en h&#228;pnadsv&#228;ckande kommersiell framg&#229;ng.<br><br>&#214;verlevarna fr&#229;n Atlantkorsningen blev, med David Brion Davis ord, &#8216;oumb&#228;rliga f&#246;r att skapa den v&#228;lm&#229;ende nya v&#228;rlden som i mitten av 1800-talet b&#246;rjade locka till sig miljontals frivilliga europeiska invandrare&#8217;. Afrikanska slavar var grunden som senare samh&#228;llen byggdes p&#229;.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Exakt hur stor roll slaveriet spelade i de nya l&#228;ndernas framv&#228;xt debatteras fortfarande.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic" width="725" height="768" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ePnz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa80af5c1-9183-47e3-aede-7ad77862a32a_725x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar vilka afrikanska omr&#229;den de f&#246;rslavade skeppades fr&#229;n. Av slavevoyages.org. Siffrorna &#228;r baserade p&#229; de resor som forskare har kunnat dokumentera. I det h&#228;r fallet handlar det om cirka 7 878 &#8203;&#8203;500 f&#246;rslavade personer, vilket uppskattas till cirka 63,3 procent av totalen.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Siffrorna &#228;r sv&#229;ra att fastst&#228;lla men en vanlig uppskattning &#228;r att 12,5 miljoner afrikaner f&#246;rslavades mellan 1400- och 1800-talet som en del av den transatlantiska handeln. Upp till tv&#229; miljoner av dem dog under b&#229;tf&#228;rden &#246;ver Atlanten, och miljontals ytterligare d&#246;dades n&#228;r de tillf&#229;ngatogs i Afrika eller marscherades ut mot europ&#233;ernas afrikanska kustfort.</p><h3>Bortom USA</h3><p>Av de tolv och en halv miljonerna importerades f&#228;rre &#228;n 400 000 till USA, vilket &#228;r noterbart eftersom slaveriet i den amerikanska s&#246;dern f&#246;r m&#229;nga har blivit sinnebilden f&#246;r hela perioden.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic" width="821" height="768" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FPTY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F28092b04-69be-4d36-94de-a06c961f2e02_821x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar vilka omr&#229;den i Nord- och Sydamerika de f&#246;rslavade afrikanerna anl&#228;nde till. Av slavevoyages.org. Siffrorna &#228;r baserade p&#229; de resor som forskare har kunnat dokumentera. I det h&#228;r fallet finns det 9 371 001 f&#246;rslavade personer, vilket uppskattas till cirka 88,5 procent av det totala antalet.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I sj&#228;lva verket var Brasilien den &#246;verl&#228;gset fr&#228;msta slavdestinationen med sina n&#228;stan fem miljoner importerade slavar, huvudsakligen fr&#229;n nuvarande Angola och Kongo. P&#229; andra plats hamnar Karibien d&#228;r dagens <strong>Jamaica</strong>, <strong>Haiti</strong>, Kuba och <strong>Barbados</strong> var popul&#228;ra destinationer.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic" width="1024" height="654" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:654,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:87539,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KgGr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F37a46e7e-e40c-4f32-a7ed-418a54de6a44_1024x654.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som sammanfattar volymen och riktningen f&#246;r den transatlantiska slavhandeln. Av slavevoyages.org.</figcaption></figure></div><h3>En myriad slavsystem</h3><p>Trots att slavimporterna till USA inte ens utgjorde fyra procent av den totala slavhandeln, utm&#228;rker sig det amerikanska slaveriet p&#229; flera s&#228;tt. Till skillnad fr&#229;n &#246;arna i Karibien var odlingsmarken till synes o&#228;ndlig och socker dominerade inte industrin. Att det fanns fler och, i j&#228;mf&#246;relse med sockerframst&#228;llning, mindre kr&#228;vande arbetsuppgifter skapade utrymme f&#246;r olika typer av relationer mellan de f&#246;rslavade.</p><p>Det var n&#229;gra av faktorerna som gjorde att de f&#246;rslavade i USA f&#246;r&#246;kade sig i en h&#246;gre takt &#228;n i m&#229;nga andra l&#228;nder. Eftersom nyf&#246;dda barn till f&#246;rslavade ocks&#229; blev slavar kunde &#228;garna m&#229;ngdubbla sin investering, s&#229; det fanns inget incitament f&#246;r dem att avskr&#228;cka utvecklingen. Den naturliga befolknings&#246;kningen f&#246;rst&#228;rktes ocks&#229; av sexuellt tv&#229;ng, p&#229;tvingade relationer och slav&#228;gares direkta intresse av att fler barn f&#246;ddes in i slaveri.</p><p>Med tiden utmynnade slaveriet i den amerikanska s&#246;dern i en komplex och underlig intimitet. Slav&#228;gare p&#229;stod sig g&#246;ra de f&#246;rslavade en tj&#228;nst genom att &#8221;r&#228;dda&#8221; dem fr&#229;n det barbariska Afrika och ge dem en &#8221;h&#229;rd men r&#228;ttvis&#8221; tillvaro i v&#228;st. Svarta betraktades som outvecklade barn som beh&#246;vde mentorskap i form av ett str&#228;ngt &#246;verhuvud, d&#228;rav anv&#228;ndandet av termen &#8221;boy&#8221; f&#246;r svarta m&#228;n. Sj&#228;lva slavarbetet ans&#229;gs till viss del vara slavarnas gottg&#246;relse f&#246;r att de blivit upplyfta fr&#229;n Afrika och v&#228;lkomnade in i den kristna v&#228;rmen.</p><p>Detta kulturella drag har i somliga kretsar anv&#228;nts f&#246;r att utm&#229;la det amerikanska slaveriet som mer &#8221;godhj&#228;rtat&#8221; &#228;n andra, vilket &#228;r bisarrt eftersom infantiliseringen grundade sig i bilden av svarta afrikaner som en l&#228;gre st&#229;ende art.</p><p>Huruvida slav&#228;gare p&#229; riktigt trodde att de gjorde slavarna en tj&#228;nst eller om de innerst inne visste att det var en bortf&#246;rklaring &#228;r naturligtvis sv&#229;rt att fastsl&#229;. Men ett vanligt motargument &#228;r att det snarare handlade om att de f&#246;rs&#246;kte hitta ett s&#228;tt att maskera det sj&#228;lviska utsugandet av andra m&#228;nniskor som n&#229;got uppoffrande och nobelt &#8211; en kristen g&#228;rning.</p><p>Traditionen gjorde dock att slavarna i den amerikanska s&#246;dern i st&#246;rre utstr&#228;ckning behandlades som l&#229;ngvariga investeringar, till skillnad fr&#229;n i exempelvis Karibien d&#228;r de i h&#246;gre grad s&#229;gs som f&#246;rbrukningsvaror. N&#228;r det amerikanska inb&#246;rdeskriget br&#246;t ut 1861 fanns det hela fyra miljoner slavar i landet.</p><p>USA m&#229; bara ha st&#229;tt f&#246;r en liten andel av den totala transatlantiska importen, men en utm&#228;rkande dynamik var att landet utvecklade sin egen inhemska slavhandel. Stater som ans&#229;gs ha ett &#246;verskott av slavar skickade f&#246;rslavade till stater som beh&#246;vde fler av dem &#8211; n&#229;got som regelbundet slet s&#246;nder familjer.</p><p>Med uppfinningen av bomullsginen i b&#246;rjan av 1790-talet blev det l&#228;ttare att skilja fr&#246;na fr&#229;n fibrerna och bomullsodlingen blev o&#228;ndligt mycket mer l&#246;nsam. Detta ledde till en enorm &#246;kning av det amerikanska slaveriet, eftersom det var de f&#246;rslavade som f&#246;rv&#228;ntades plocka bomullen.</p><p>Trots att USA sedan l&#228;nge slutat vara beroende av transatlantisk <em>import</em> av f&#246;rslavade kunde landet ist&#228;llet f&#246;rlita sig p&#229; sin egen inhemska slavmarknad. Medan bomullsexporten &#246;kade i en h&#228;pnadsv&#228;ckande takt, &#246;kade &#228;ven slaveriets omfattning och detta fortsatte &#228;nda fram till utbrottet av det amerikanska inb&#246;rdeskriget i mitten av 1800-talet.</p><p>I den omtalade och kontroversiella boken <em>The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism</em> skriver den amerikanske historikern <strong>Edward E. Baptist</strong>:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Fr&#229;n 1783, i slutet av den amerikanska revolutionen, till 1861 &#246;kade antalet slavar i USA fem g&#229;nger om, och all denna expansion producerade en m&#228;ktig nation. F&#246;r vita f&#246;rslavare kunde tvinga f&#246;rslavade afroamerikanska migranter att plocka bomull snabbare och mer effektivt &#228;n fria m&#228;nniskor. <br><br>Deras metoder f&#246;rvandlade snabbt sydstaterna till den dominerande makten p&#229; den globala bomullsmarknaden, och bomull var v&#228;rldens mest handlade r&#229;vara vid den tiden, eftersom det var den viktigaste r&#229;varan under det f&#246;rsta &#229;rhundradet av den industriella revolutionen. Avkastningen fr&#229;n bomullsmonopol drev moderniseringen av resten av den amerikanska ekonomin, och vid tiden f&#246;r inb&#246;rdeskriget hade USA blivit den andra nationen att genomg&#229; storskalig industrialisering.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p></p><h3>Ras och rasblandning</h3><p>Ett annat s&#228;rdrag var att en strikt syn p&#229; ras v&#228;xte fram i USA som pr&#228;glade samh&#228;llet. Trots att det f&#246;rekom sexuellt umg&#228;nge &#8221;&#246;ver rasgr&#228;nserna&#8221;, ofta p&#229;tvingat, s&#229;gs det som moraliskt f&#246;rkastligt och reglerades i lag. F&#246;rbud mot bland&#228;ktenskap f&#246;rklarades grundlagsstridigt av USA:s h&#246;gsta domstol f&#246;rst 1967.</p><p>Skillnaderna mellan svart och vit var distinkta s&#229; till den grad att &#8221;endroppsregler&#8221; togs fram med m&#229;let att bevara rasm&#228;ssiga hierarkier och motverka &#8221;korsning&#8221;. </p><p>Olika amerikanska delstater hade olika definitioner men de gick alla ut p&#229; att &#228;ven personer med endast lite svart afrikanskt p&#229;br&#229; klassades som svarta. I somliga delstater r&#228;knades en person som svart om den hade minst en sextondels &#8221;svart blod&#8221; i sig, i andra r&#228;ckte det med en trettiotv&#229;ondel. Vissa stater anv&#228;nde formuleringar som &#8221;n&#229;gon som helst sp&#229;rbar m&#228;ngd&#8221;.</p><p>Utan ett s&#229;dant strikt system &#228;r det inte osannolikt att USA:s svarta inv&#229;nare i h&#246;gre utstr&#228;ckning skulle ha &#8221;absorberats&#8221; av den vita majoriteten. Ist&#228;llet utg&#246;r svarta idag drygt 14 procent av befolkningen: &#246;ver 40 miljoner inv&#229;nare, vilket &#228;r cirka hundra g&#229;nger fler &#228;n m&#228;ngden som importerades.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic" width="1280" height="1804" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1804,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:563710,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IqBG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfdee81-d40b-415a-a64c-412e24dc1657_1280x1804.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">1700-talsm&#229;lning fr&#229;n dagens Mexiko &#8211; en s&#229; kallad kastm&#229;lning &#8211; som visar de 16 olika &#8220;raserna&#8221; och &#8220;blandningarna&#8221; i Nya Spanien. Detta kan j&#228;mf&#246;ras med USA:s &#8220;one drop rule&#8221;, d&#228;r endast en minimal m&#228;ngd &#8220;afrikanskt blod&#8221; innebar att en person r&#228;knades som svart.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I exempelvis kolonierna som tillh&#246;rde Portugal och Spanien &#8211; platser med ett stort antal svarta slavar &#8211; fanns d&#228;remot inte samma rigida rasskillnader. F&#246;ljaktligen var det vanligare med sexuellt umg&#228;nge och relationer &#8221;&#246;ver rasgr&#228;nserna&#8221;, vilket har resulterat i att moderna l&#228;nder som Brasilien, <strong>Dominikanska republiken</strong> och Kuba har en stor andel mixade inv&#229;nare.</p><p>I till exempel <strong>Irak</strong>, <strong>Iran</strong> och <strong>Indien</strong> finns idag svarta minoriteter, vars ursprung delvis kan h&#228;rledas till slavhandeln via Sahara, R&#246;da havet och Indiska oceanen. M&#229;nga av dem kan &#228;ven sp&#229;ra sitt ursprung till afrikanska resen&#228;rer, vetenskapsm&#228;n och pilgrimer som tidigare slagit sig ned i omr&#229;dena. Men att minoriteterna inte &#228;r &#228;nnu st&#246;rre eller synligare kan sannolikt ocks&#229; kopplas till en mer flytande syn p&#229; ras. </p><p>Under delar av den muslimska v&#228;rldens tusen&#229;riga slavhandel med subsahariska afrikaner kan synen ha bidragit till att det stora antalet svarta som importerades sedan l&#228;nge har assimilerats av de lokala majoritetsbefolkningarna.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic" width="1456" height="1012" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1012,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:126589,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/197348477?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FQgz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c62dbbe-a9c8-4378-8f88-f2f9e7e6b3f2_1922x1336.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Tabell som visar en tidslinje f&#246;r den transatlantiska slavhandeln. Av slavevoyages.org.</figcaption></figure></div><h3>Slaveriets l&#229;nga skugga</h3><p>Som exemplen ovan visar &#228;r generaliseringar av begr&#228;nsad nytta eftersom slaveriets regionala varianter, regelverk och sedv&#228;njor kunde se vitt skilda ut. Men att slaveriet har satt oerh&#246;rt djupa sp&#229;r, i allt fr&#229;n ekonomi till folkh&#228;lsa, &#228;r uppenbart. Flera av problemen vi ser p&#229; det v&#228;stra halvklotet idag: som rasismen och den oj&#228;mlika ekonomiska f&#246;rdelningen mellan vita och svarta, kan ocks&#229; h&#228;rledas till m&#228;nniskohandeln.</p><p>Det &#228;r bara n&#229;gra av m&#229;nga anledningar till varf&#246;r den h&#228;r perioden &#228;r s&#229; viktig att studera och k&#228;nna till.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>I del tre av min serie om den transatlantiska slavhandeln kommer jag att skriva om vad det var som &#8211; efter mer &#228;n 400 &#229;r &#8211; till slut fick m&#228;nniskohandeln att upph&#246;ra under 1800-talet.</em></p><p><em>Det som vanligtvis brukar framh&#229;llas &#228;r upplysningens int&#229;g, med sina id&#233;er om f&#246;rnuft och frihet. Men &#229;terigen hade ekonomiska faktorer en minst lika stor roll. </em></p><div><hr></div><h3><strong>L&#228;s mer:</strong></h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>The Chronicle of Discovery and Conquest of Guinea </em>av Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453)</p><p><em>An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa </em>av Alexander Falconbridge (1788)</p><p><em>The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African </em>av Olaudah Equiano (1789)</p><p><em>Capitalism and Slavery </em>av Eric Williams (1944)</p><p><em>Plagues and Peoples </em>av William H. McNeill (1976<em>)</em></p><p><em>Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study </em>av Orlando Patterson (1982)</p><p><em>The African Slave Trade </em>av Basil Davidson (1988)</p><p><em>Indian Freedom: The Cause of Bartolome de las Casas: a Reader </em>av Bartolom&#233; de las Casas och Francis Patrick Sullivan (red.) (1995)</p><p><em>Africa: A Biography of the Continent </em>av John Reader (1997)</p><p><em>Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 </em>av John K. Thornton (1998), <em>Prince Henry &#8221;the Navigator&#8221;: A Life </em>av Peter Russell (2000)</p><p><em>Pawnship, Slavery And Colonialism In Africa</em> av Toyin Falola och Paul E. Lovejoy (red.) (2003)</p><p><em>A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana: From the 15th to the 19th Century</em> av Akosua Adoma Perbi (2004)</p><p><em>The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slaves in Louisiana&#8217;s Cane World, 1820&#8211;1860 </em>av Richard J. Follet (2005)</p><p><em>The Atlantic Slave Trade</em> av Herbert S. Klein (2010)</p><p><em>Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa </em>av Paul E. Lovejoy (2012)</p><p><em>A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present</em> av Richard J. Reid (2012)</p><p><em>The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor </em>av Martin Meredith (2014)</p><p><em>The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation </em>av David Brion Davis (2014)</p><p><em>The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism</em> av Edward E. Baptist (2014)</p><p><em>What is Slavery? </em>av Brenda E. Stevenson (2015)</p><p><em>A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise of the Slave Trade to the Age of Revolution </em>av Toby Green (2019)</p><p><em>Freedom: The Overthrow of the Slave Empires </em>av James Walvin (2019)</p><p><em>Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War </em>av Howard W. French (2021).</p><p><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8220;The Role of Las Casas in the Emergence of Negro Slavery in the New World&#8221; av Robert L. Brady i <em>Revista de Historia de Am&#233;rica</em> (Nr. 61/62, 1966)</p><p>&#8221;What Africans Got for Their Slaves: A Master List of European Trade Goods&#8221; av Stanley B. Alpern i <em>History in Africa </em>(vol. 22, 1995)</p><p>&#8221;The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas&#8221; av Michael Tadman i <em>The American Historical Review </em>(vol. 103, nr 5, 2000)</p><p>&#8220;Madeira, Sugar, and the Conquest of Nature in the &#8217;First&#8217; Sixteenth Century, Part II: From Regional Crisis to Commodity Frontier, 1506&#8211;1530&#8221; av Jason W. Moore i <em>Review </em>(vol. 33, nr 1, 2010)</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-button-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;}" data-component-name="CaptionedButtonToDOM"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Svart historia! This post is public so feel free to share it.</p></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p></div><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Transatlantiska slaveriet, del 1]]></title><description><![CDATA[Portugals utforskning av Afrika och slaveriets f&#246;delse]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 07 May 2026 12:47:03 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic" width="1402" height="1122" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17ln!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F257634da-e611-476a-82b3-22ac3dbed1a1_1402x1122.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration som gestaltar m&#246;tet mellan Diogo de Azambuja och Kwamena Ansa.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I januari &#229;r 1482 anl&#228;nde en portugisisk flotta till det vi idag k&#228;nner till som <strong>Ghana</strong>. Ombord fartygen fanns hundratals soldater och flera kanoner, men ocks&#229; murare och diverse byggmaterial, fr&#229;n sm&#229; spikar till stora grundstommar. </p><p>Flottan la ankare i en bukt d&#228;r det gr&#246;nbl&#229;a vattnet var f&#246;rh&#229;llandevis stilla och v&#229;gorna sm&#229;. N&#228;r bes&#228;ttningen gick i land m&#246;ttes den av en bred sandstrand som kantades av h&#246;ga vajande palmer. Den starka solen pressade upp temperaturen till 30-strecket och fukten gjorde luften sv&#229;r att andas.</p><p>Intill stranden l&#229;g en by som delades i tv&#229; av en liten flod. Portugiserna slog sig ner vid en upph&#246;jning precis i b&#246;rjan av bukten, en strategisk plats som gav dem en &#246;verblick &#246;ver omgivningen, b&#229;de ut mot havet och in&#229;t landet. D&#228;r h&#246;jde de en flagga som fladdrade i den varma brisen. </p><p><strong>Diogo de Azambuja</strong>, kaptenen och ledaren f&#246;r expeditionen, hade tagit p&#229; sig sina allra finaste kl&#228;der. I skuggan av ett tr&#228;d satte han sig p&#229; en hastigt uppf&#246;rd tron medan han v&#228;ntade.</p><p>Efter en stund m&#246;ttes portugiserna av en v&#228;lkomstkommitt&#233;. L&#228;ngst fram gick en orkester, deras trummor och trumpeter gav ifr&#229;n sig ett &#246;ronbed&#246;vande ljud. De f&#246;ljdes av en samling aristokrater som ackompanjerades av sina unga betj&#228;nter som bar fina tyger f&#246;r de seniora att sitta p&#229;. &#196;ven en grupp soldater bev&#228;pnade med spjut, sk&#246;ldar och pilb&#229;gar f&#246;ljde dem.</p><p>Till sist kom den som Diogo de Azambuja v&#228;ntat p&#229;: <strong>Kwamena Ansa</strong>, en s&#229; kallad <em>omanahene</em> &#8211; en lokal kung, h&#246;vding eller h&#246;gste ledare. Kungens hals, ben och armar var t&#228;ckta av guldsmycken, han hade till och med guld infl&#228;tat i h&#229;ret och i sk&#228;gget.</p><p>Diogo de Azambuja och Kwamena Ansa tog i hand, g&#229;vor utbyttes och f&#246;rhandlingarna inleddes. Det Azambuja mest av allt ville ha var tillst&#229;nd att f&#229; uppf&#246;ra en permanent f&#228;stning. Om portugiserna bara skulle f&#229; g&#246;ra det kunde kungen r&#228;kna med fantastiska handelsm&#246;jligheter. Han skulle till och med f&#229; chansen att konvertera till katolicismen, n&#229;got som skulle g&#246;ra honom till en broder i den portugisiske kungens &#246;gon.</p><p>Kwamena Ansa svarade till en b&#246;rjan avf&#228;rdande. Det h&#228;r var inte de f&#246;rsta portugiserna att komma till omr&#229;det, enstaka fartyg hade bes&#246;kt den h&#228;r kustremsan under de senaste tio &#229;ren, men de portugisiska sj&#246;m&#228;nnen och sm&#229;handlarna hade knappast imponerat.</p><p><em>&#8221;De kristna som har kommit hit tidigare har varit v&#228;ldigt f&#229;, smutsiga och tarvliga&#8221;</em>, sa Kwamena Ansa till sin g&#228;st.</p><p>Kanske var det d&#228;rf&#246;r Diogo de Azambuja hade tagit p&#229; sig en s&#229; fin utstyrsel, det h&#228;r uppdraget var f&#246;r viktigt f&#246;r att falla p&#229; ett d&#229;ligt f&#246;rsta intryck. Det portugiserna ville f&#246;rs&#246;ka sig p&#229; nu var n&#229;got dj&#228;rvt och nyt&#228;nkande: att bygga en permanent bas s&#229; h&#228;r l&#229;ngt s&#246;der om Sahara. Trots Kwamena Ansas tvekan vanns han till slut &#246;ver av portugisernas m&#229;nga l&#246;ften. Redan dagen d&#228;rp&#229; la de den f&#246;rsta stenen av det som skulle bli det f&#246;rsta europeiska fortet i det tropiska Afrika.</p><p>Portugiserna kallade hela omr&#229;det, och nu fortet de skulle bygga p&#229; det, f&#246;r <em>El Mina</em>: gruvan. Och det var just guldet som hade lockat dit dem. Men det var handeln med en annan typ av &#8221;vara&#8221; som skulle f&#229; &#246;desdigra konsekvenser, och l&#228;gga grunden f&#246;r den moderna atlantiska v&#228;rlden.</p><h3>Guldfeber</h3><p>I mer &#228;n tusen &#229;r var <strong>Sidenv&#228;gen</strong> en av v&#228;rldens viktigaste handelsrutter. Den bestod av en m&#228;ngd f&#246;rgrenade v&#228;gar som tillsammans skapade ett n&#228;tverk som kn&#246;t ihop <strong>Kina</strong> med <strong>Europa</strong> via <strong>Centralasien</strong>, <strong>Indien</strong> och <strong>Mellan&#246;stern</strong>.</p><p>En seglivad teori &#228;r att <strong>Osmanska rikets </strong>er&#246;vring av <strong>Konstantinopel</strong>, dagens <strong>Istanbul</strong>, &#229;r 1453 markerade ett avbrott i handeln eftersom osmanerna s&#228;gs ha p&#229;verkat den negativt genom att inf&#246;ra h&#246;ga tullavgifter eller helt st&#228;nga den. Enligt teorin ska europ&#233;erna d&#228;rf&#246;r ha b&#246;rjat s&#246;ka efter sj&#246;v&#228;gen till Kina och Indien, vilket p&#229;st&#229;s ha stimulerat det som kallas uppt&#228;cktsresornas epok.</p><p>Teorier som s&#229; tydligt skapar ett orsak&#8211;verkan-samband mellan tv&#229; k&#228;nda skeenden i v&#228;rldshistorien blir ofta popul&#228;ra. Men de l&#246;per ocks&#229; h&#246;gre risk att vara f&#246;renklande. I det h&#228;r fallet finns det dessutom mycket som tyder p&#229; att teorin &#228;r direkt felaktig, det fr&#228;msta argumentet &#228;r kanske att portugisernas utforskning av Afrika b&#246;rjade flera decennier f&#246;re Konstantinopels fall.</p><p>Det verkliga genombrottet f&#246;r Europas uppt&#228;cktsresor skedde &#229;r 1415 n&#228;r Portugal, under ledning av <strong>prins Henrik</strong>, er&#246;vrade den viktiga handelsstaden <strong>Ceuta</strong>. Staden ligger i de nordligaste delarna av <strong>Marocko</strong> och &#228;r idag ett spanskt territorium. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic" width="783" height="1000" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1000,&quot;width&quot;:783,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:282954,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/196767793?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WqUo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F135c79b3-c748-4e49-8d47-b1352e0fc3f6_783x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">M&#229;lning fr&#229;n omkring 1470 av Nuno Gon&#231;alves. S&#228;gs f&#246;rest&#228;lla den portugisiske prins Henrik, eller Henrik Sj&#246;fararen, som sponsrade Portugals uppt&#228;cktsresor. Vissa historiker tror att m&#229;lningen ist&#228;llet f&#246;rest&#228;ller kung Edward av Portugal.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Innan &#246;vertagandet hade Ceuta fungerat som en slags terminal f&#246;r de ofantligt lukrativa transsahariska guldleveranserna fr&#229;n V&#228;stafrika. P&#229; mitten av 1300-talet spelade <strong><a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld">Maliriket</a></strong> en avg&#246;rande roll f&#246;r att stora och regelbundna laster med guldstoft n&#229;dde Europa, men i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1400-talet, n&#228;r Mali befann sig i nedg&#229;ng, blev leveranserna f&#228;rre. </p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;81b57bf2-99a7-4ee8-a76c-c8655861155a&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Det var en plats d&#228;r vissa trodde att v&#228;rdefulla mineraler frodades i marken och plockades som v&#228;xter. Ett gigantiskt imperium som fungerade som ett centrum f&#246;r handel och religion, och som f&#246;rs&#229;g Europa, Nordafrika och Mellan&#246;stern med det s&#229; eftertraktade guldet.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Mali, Mansa Musa &amp; floden av guld&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-02-25T14:06:29.733Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:157881168,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p>Det var en av de bidragande faktorerna som bidrog till den &#228;delmetall- och myntbrist som pr&#228;glade delar av Europa under 1400-talet. Den inhemska europeiska guldproduktionen var l&#229;g och digerd&#246;dens framfart under det f&#246;reg&#229;ende seklet hade p&#229;verkat silverutvinningen negativt.</p><p>Nu n&#228;r pesten var &#246;ver, Europa h&#246;ll p&#229; att &#229;terh&#228;mta sig och ekonomierna v&#228;xte, saknade man pl&#246;tsligt &#228;delmetallerna man beh&#246;vde f&#246;r att pr&#228;gla mynten man hade vant sig vid att anv&#228;nda. P&#229; vissa h&#229;ll blev myntbristen s&#229; stor att byteshandel och alternativa betalningsformer &#229;ter blev vanligare.</p><p>I boken <em>A Financial History of Western Europe</em> skriver den amerikanske ekonomihistorikern <strong>Charles P. Kindleberger </strong>att det i <strong>Tyskland</strong> blev s&#229; vanligt att anv&#228;nda peppar som valuta att landets bankm&#228;n kom att bli k&#228;nda som &#8221;pepparm&#228;n&#8221;. Kindleberger skriver ocks&#229; att bristen p&#229; mynt, eller &#228;delmetaller, var en av anledningarna till att europ&#233;er b&#246;rjade anstr&#228;nga sig allt mer f&#246;r korsa hav de &#228;nnu inte lyckats ta sig &#246;ver.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Portugisernas attack mot Ceuta skedde snabbt och pl&#246;tsligt en augustidag &#229;r 1415. En stor flotta bar den portugisiska arm&#233;n &#246;ver Medelhavet och ombord ett av skeppen fanns prins Henrik, d&#229; bara 21 &#229;r gammal. Han var ivrig, inte bara att f&#229; ett fotf&#228;ste i Afrika och koppla grepp om den v&#228;rdefulla guldhandeln, utan att ocks&#229; vinna kyrkans gillande genom att er&#246;vra en stad fr&#229;n muslimerna som den kristna v&#228;rlden l&#229;g i konstant konflikt med. </p><p>Er&#246;vringen av Ceuta tog bara 13 timmar och efter&#229;t var portugiserna &#246;vertygade om att de genom att ta &#246;ver f&#228;stningen hade hittat nyckeln till resten av Afrika.</p><p>Men Portugals f&#246;rhoppning om att tj&#228;na p&#229; Ceutas handel var orealistiskt optimistisk eftersom staden blev en kristen enklav i ett annars muslimskt Nordafrika.</p><p>Muslimerna la helt enkelt om handelsrutterna. Ist&#228;llet f&#246;r att varorna som transporterats genom Sahara n&#229;dde Ceuta, gick de ist&#228;llet n&#229;gra mil v&#228;sterut, till hamnstaden <strong>Tanger</strong>. Och ist&#228;llet f&#246;r att bli en guldgruva f&#246;r portugiserna, blev Ceuta ett projekt som bl&#246;dde pengar, eftersom det kostade att bygga f&#246;rsvarsst&#228;llningar och fylla fortet med vaktande trupper.</p><p>F&#246;r portugiserna blev l&#246;sningen att forts&#228;tta utforska haven v&#228;sterut och under de kommande decennierna koloniserade de &#246;ar som <strong>Azorerna</strong> och <strong>Madeira</strong>.</p><h3>Den &#246;desdigra sj&#246;v&#228;gen till V&#228;stafrika</h3><p>Id&#233;n att utforska Afrikas v&#228;stra kust &#228;r ur&#229;ldrig. Redan p&#229; 400-talet f.Kr. gav sig en man vi idag k&#228;nner till som <strong>Hanno Sj&#246;fararen </strong>ut p&#229; havet. Han var fr&#229;n <strong>Karthago</strong>, ett antikt kungad&#246;me med bas i dagens <strong>Tunisien</strong>, och tros ha varit h&#246;gt uppsatt, kanske medlem av aristokratin eller en milit&#228;r officer. I en skrift han l&#228;mnade efter sig beskriver han hur han seglar nedf&#246;r den v&#228;stafrikanska kusten, grundar bos&#228;ttningar och eventuellt kommer i kontakt med gorillor.</p><p>En vanlig teori &#228;r att Hanno lyckades ta sig s&#229; l&#229;ngt som dagens <strong>Senegal</strong>. En annan &#228;r att han seglade &#228;nda till nuvarande <strong>Kamerun</strong>. Andra argumenterar f&#246;r att han &#8221;bara&#8221; n&#229;dde <strong>Marocko</strong>. Det r&#229;der ingen konsensus och k&#228;llorna &#228;r luddiga och &#246;ppna f&#246;r tolkningar.</p><p>Men lyckades Hanno ta sig s&#229; l&#229;ngt som Senegal eller till och med Kamerun, var han l&#229;ngt<em> </em>f&#246;re sin tid, f&#246;r p&#229; 1400-talet e.Kr., n&#228;r portugiserna blickade mot Afrika, var resor ute p&#229; &#246;ppet hav fortfarande f&#246;renade med livsfara. Starka str&#246;mmar, ov&#228;der och f&#246;rr&#228;diska kustremsor kunde alla inneb&#228;ra slutet f&#246;r sj&#246;m&#228;n, och det var l&#229;ngt ifr&#229;n en garanti att den som gav sig ut p&#229; haven kom tillbaka.</p><p>F&#246;r europeiska sj&#246;m&#228;n hade <strong>Kap Bujur </strong>l&#228;nge markerat ett stort hinder. Det &#228;r en udde i dagens <strong>V&#228;stsahara</strong> d&#228;r dimman ofta ligger t&#228;t, str&#246;mmarna drar skeppen &#229;t olika h&#229;ll och vindarna bl&#229;ser starka. </p><p>Med tiden blev omr&#229;det mytomspunnet. Det sas att klimatet l&#228;ngre s&#246;derut var s&#229; pass varmt att hettan fick havet att koka, att solens str&#229;lar kunde f&#229; skeppen att ant&#228;nda och att vidunderliga sj&#246;odjur lurade under ytan. Fartyg som f&#246;rs&#246;kt runda udden och forts&#228;tta s&#246;derut kom aldrig tillbaka. &#196;ven arabiska sj&#246;m&#228;n var v&#228;lbekanta med omr&#229;det, de d&#246;pte det till <em>Ab&#363; Kha&#7789;ar</em>, vilket kan &#246;vers&#228;ttas till ungef&#228;r &#8221;farans fader&#8221;.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-1?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Prins Henrik &#228;r &#228;ven k&#228;nd som <strong>Henrik Sj&#246;fararen</strong>, f&#246;r det var under hans ledning, och med hans finansiering, som Portugal gjorde avsev&#228;rda framsteg inom navigering och skeppsbyggnad. &#197;r efter &#229;r lyckades portugisiska expeditioner ta sig allt l&#228;ngre s&#246;derut.</p><p>Motiven var b&#229;de finansiella och religi&#246;sa. Portugiserna ville &#246;ppna upp handeln, fr&#228;mst med guld. Men de ville ocks&#229; sprida kristendomen och leta efter den mytomspunna figuren <strong>Johannes Pr&#228;sten</strong>, som enligt medeltida europeiska legender var en kung som ledde ett framst&#229;ende kristet rike omringat av muslimer och hedningar. </p><p>Tidigare antogs Johannes Pr&#228;stens kungad&#246;me vara bel&#228;get i <strong>Mongoliet</strong> eller Indien, men nu trodde man att det sannolikt l&#229;g n&#229;gonstans i Afrika, kanske <strong>Etiopien</strong>. Johannes Pr&#228;sten antogs fortfarande vara vid liv och s&#229;gs p&#229; som en potentiellt viktig allierad i kampen mot muslimerna.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R_oH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F11820445-97d7-411c-8e49-d49050be0cb1_1920x1644.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R_oH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F11820445-97d7-411c-8e49-d49050be0cb1_1920x1644.heic 424w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R_oH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F11820445-97d7-411c-8e49-d49050be0cb1_1920x1644.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R_oH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F11820445-97d7-411c-8e49-d49050be0cb1_1920x1644.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R_oH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F11820445-97d7-411c-8e49-d49050be0cb1_1920x1644.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R_oH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F11820445-97d7-411c-8e49-d49050be0cb1_1920x1644.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta fr&#229;n 1564 som visar hur vissa europ&#233;er f&#246;rest&#228;llde sig det Johannes Pr&#228;stens mytomspunna kungarike.  </figcaption></figure></div><p>&#197;r 1433 gjorde den portugisiske sj&#246;fararen<strong> Gil Eanes</strong> ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att ta sig f&#246;rbi Kap Bujur. Den g&#229;ngen vann r&#228;dslan &#246;ver honom och han v&#228;nde hem mot Portugal efter att bara ha tagit sig till Kanarie&#246;arna. </p><p>Den missn&#246;jde prins Henrik skickade tillbaka Eanes &#229;ret d&#228;rp&#229; med samma uppdrag och den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen lyckades han inte bara ta sig f&#246;rbi Kap Bujur utan ocks&#229; &#229;terv&#228;nda v&#228;lbeh&#229;llen. Han hittade visserligen inget guld, men han tog &#228;nd&#229; med sig n&#229;got v&#228;rdefullt &#8211; vetskapen om att varken fruktansv&#228;rda sj&#246;monster eller gigantiska str&#246;mvirvlar fanns i omr&#229;det.</p><p>Med nyfunnen inspiration fortsatte expeditionerna. &#197;r 1441 tog sig portugiserna till <strong>Ras Nouadhibou </strong>i nuvarande <strong>Mauretanien</strong> och V&#228;stsahara. Inledningsvis skedde en sm&#229;skalig handel med den lokala befolkningen. </p><p>De som bodde i omr&#229;det var imazighen, m&#228;nniskorna som utg&#246;r Nordafrikas ursprungsbefolkning, och tillsammans byteshandlade parterna med tyger, kl&#228;desplagg, djurskinn, vete och sm&#229; m&#228;ngder guldstoft. Men spontana slavr&#228;der, utf&#246;rda av bland andra sj&#246;fararen <strong>Nuno Trist&#227;o</strong>, avsl&#246;jade m&#228;nniskohandelns stora potential.</p><h3>Ett slaveriexperiment</h3><p>Att i kristendomens namn f&#246;rslava folkgrupper man kom i kontakt med var inget nytt f&#246;r sydeurop&#233;erna. Under 1300-talet hade exempelvis b&#229;de spanjorerna och portugiserna utf&#246;rt sj&#246;r&#228;der mot Kanarie&#246;arna, och under attackerna kidnappade man ofta medlemmar ur &#246;arnas ursprungsbefolkning och s&#229;lde dem p&#229; europeiska slavmarknader. Under 1400-talet koloniserade slutligen spanjorerna &#246;arna under l&#229;ngsamma och brutala former, och &#228;nnu fler m&#228;nniskor f&#246;rslavades.</p><p><strong>Gomes Eanes de Zurara </strong>var en portugisisk man som jobbade i det kungliga biblioteket och som protokollf&#246;rde hovets f&#246;rfaranden. I hans <em>The Chronicle of Discovery and Conquest of Guinea </em>fr&#229;n &#229;r 1453 hittas ett av de &#228;ldsta &#229;tergivna exemplen p&#229; portugisiska slavr&#228;der i Afrika.</p><p>Boken beskriver bland annat hur k&#246;pmannen <strong>Lan&#231;arote de Freitas </strong>&#229;r 1444 ledde en flotta om sex karaveller till <strong>Arguinbukten</strong> i nuvarande Mauretanien med det uttryckliga syftet att f&#246;rslava m&#228;nniskor. De attackerade sm&#229; samh&#228;llen l&#228;ngs kusten som bestod av fattiga familjer av fiskare tillh&#246;rande det lokala imazighenfolket. De &#229;terv&#228;nde till Lagos i s&#246;dra Portugal med 235 f&#229;ngar, utmattade och skr&#228;ckslagna. De Zurara skriver:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Vissa hade b&#246;jda huvuden och ansikten som badade i t&#229;rar medan de tittade p&#229; varandra. Andra j&#228;mrade &#246;mkligt, tittade mot himlen, deras &#246;gon fixerade p&#229; den, och ropade ut som om de bad universums far om hj&#228;lp&#8221;.</em></p></blockquote><p>Bes&#228;ttningen och f&#229;ngarna m&#246;ttes av en stor folksamling, ivriga att f&#229; se spektaklet. En av de n&#228;rvarade var prins Henrik sj&#228;lv, som fr&#229;n ryggen p&#229; sin h&#228;st bevittnade uppst&#229;ndelsen. Han l&#228;r ha varit n&#246;jd, f&#246;r 46 av de &#8221;b&#228;sta slavarna&#8221; hade reserverats f&#246;r just honom. F&#246;r att distribuera resten av de blivande slavarna f&#246;rdelades de i olika grupper.</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Och d&#229; blev det n&#246;dv&#228;ndigt att separera f&#228;der fr&#229;n s&#246;ner, m&#228;n fr&#229;n fruar, br&#246;der fr&#229;n br&#246;der. Varken v&#228;nner eller relationer respekterades ... S&#246;nerna, n&#228;r de s&#229;g sina f&#228;der i en annan grupp, reste sig hastigt och rusade &#246;ver till dem; m&#246;drarna pressade sina andra barn mot br&#246;stet innan de kastade sig p&#229; marken med dem, medan de mottog slag utan en tanke p&#229; sina egna kroppar.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Enligt Gomes Eanes de Zurara var de f&#246;rslavade b&#229;de vita, mixade och svarta, vilket understryker att hudf&#228;rg &#228;nnu inte hade b&#246;rjat spela den avg&#246;rande roll som den skulle g&#246;ra i det stundande transatlantiska slaveriet. S&#229; h&#228;r under 1400-talets f&#246;rsta h&#228;lft togs du inte som slav fr&#228;mst f&#246;r att du var svart, utan f&#246;r att du var icke-kristen, en hedning.</p><p>F&#246;rutom ekonomisk vinning angavs viljan att konvertera hedningar till kristna som det fr&#228;msta sk&#228;let till r&#228;derna. Prins Henrik sj&#228;lv ans&#229;g att grymheterna de f&#246;rslavade utsattes f&#246;r i det h&#228;r livet skulle v&#228;gas upp av att de fick inleda livet efter d&#246;den som fr&#228;lsta kristna.</p><p>Trots att de Zurara vittnade om en viss m&#229;ngfald bland de f&#246;rslavade, &#228;r det ocks&#229; tydligt att han v&#228;rderade de svarta offren l&#228;gst. Han beskriver genomg&#229;ende de svarta som mindre intelligenta, mer ociviliserade, till och med fysiskt underl&#228;gsna. Hans dokument kan allts&#229; ses som ett tidigt exempel p&#229; sammanfl&#228;tningen av hudf&#228;rg och egenskaper. Denna sammanfl&#228;tning skulle senare bli ett av den kommande transatlantiska slavhandelns allra tydligaste signum: att svarta m&#228;nniskor till sin natur<em> </em>ans&#229;gs vara l&#228;gre st&#229;ende och d&#228;rf&#246;r var s&#228;rskilt, eller unikt, l&#228;mpade att tas som slavar.</p><p>Resorna fortsatte och &#229;r 1444 n&#229;dde portugiserna Senegalfloden. Men i takt med att de tog sig allt l&#228;ngre s&#246;derut blev slavr&#228;derna mer riskfyllda. Dels f&#246;r att rykten om r&#228;derna spreds och lokalbefolkningarna l&#228;ttare kunde undvika dem, dels f&#246;r att lokalbefolkningarna var v&#228;lorganiserade i motst&#229;ndskraftiga samh&#228;llen. Flera portugisiska f&#246;rband som hoppats p&#229; att f&#246;rslava v&#228;stafrikaner jagades bort eller d&#246;dades av lokala bybor och krigare som gick till attack med b&#229;de kastspjut och giftpilar.</p><p>Nuno Trist&#227;o, sj&#246;kaptenen som utf&#246;rt tidigare slavr&#228;der l&#228;ngs den nordv&#228;stafrikanska kusten i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1440-talet, gick sj&#228;lv det h&#228;r &#246;det till m&#246;tes. P&#229; mitten av 1440-talet gick han och &#246;ver 20 m&#228;n i land i det som idag &#228;r Senegal, strax s&#246;der om landets nuvarande huvudstad Dakar.</p><p>Precis som vanligt var m&#229;let att hitta m&#228;nniskor att kidnappa och s&#228;lja in i slaveri, men gruppen hamnade i ett bakh&#229;ll. Flera lokala soldater som f&#228;rdades i snabba krigskanoter omringade dem. Nuno Trist&#227;o och n&#228;stan alla av hans m&#228;n d&#246;dades d&#228;r p&#229; stranden.</p><p>Andra liknande katastrofala landstigningar fick prins Henrik att beordra ett avslut p&#229; de v&#228;stafrikanska slavr&#228;derna &#229;r 1448. Det blev uppenbart att en annan taktik beh&#246;vdes. En som f&#246;rlitade sig p&#229; diplomati och handel ist&#228;llet f&#246;r v&#229;ld.</p><p>Vid den h&#228;r tidpunkten utgjordes stora delar av det som idag &#228;r Senegal av <strong>Jolof</strong>- eller <strong>Wolofriket</strong>. Det str&#228;ckte sig ungef&#228;r fr&#229;n Senegalfloden i norr till Gambiafloden i s&#246;der, n&#229;got som gjorde det s&#228;rskilt l&#228;mpat f&#246;r handel. Det hade tidigare varit den allra v&#228;stra provinsen av Maliriket, men under andra h&#228;lften av 1300-talet, n&#228;r Mali skakades av en serie konflikter om tronen, br&#246;t sig woloffolket loss och skapade sitt eget kungad&#246;me.</p><p>B&#229;de rike och kungad&#246;me &#228;r egentligen missvisande f&#246;r det fungerade inte som en sammanh&#229;llen stat utan som en slags konfederation av flera kungad&#246;men. Oavsett var det ett av de allra tidigaste v&#228;stafrikanska rikena att g&#229; med p&#229; ett fredligt handelsf&#246;rh&#229;llande n&#228;r portugiserna bytte sina sv&#228;rd mot varor. Det som handlades med var exempelvis guld och elfenben. Men med tiden &#228;ven f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskor.</p><h3><strong>Slaveri som fenomen</strong></h3><p>Slaveri omn&#228;mns i n&#229;gra av m&#228;nniskans &#228;ldsta skriftliga k&#228;llor och har varit en del av v&#229;r historia i tusentals &#229;r, fr&#229;n civilisationens vaggor som <strong>Mesopotamien</strong> och <strong>Egypten</strong> till antikens <strong>Rom</strong> och <strong>Grekland</strong>, fr&#229;n Centralamerikas mayakultur till medeltida <strong>Japan</strong>. I <strong>Sverige</strong> var tr&#228;larna en form av slavar p&#229; vikinga- och medeltiden. Fram tills f&#246;r bara 100-150 &#229;r sedan var slaveri en vanligt f&#246;rekommande del i m&#229;nga samh&#228;llen runtom i v&#228;rlden. Det &#228;r tiden vi lever i nu som &#228;r unik med sitt <em>n&#228;stan</em> universella f&#246;rd&#246;mande av slaveri. Tyv&#228;rr existerar det &#228;n idag p&#229; flera h&#229;ll runt om i v&#228;rlden.</p><p>Trots att de flesta har en specifik bild av vad slaveri &#228;r finns det m&#229;nga olika typer och definitioner, en k&#228;lla till f&#246;rvirring. Moderna breda definitioner inkluderar exempelvis tv&#229;ngsarbetare som jobbar under hot om v&#229;ld, extrem fattigdom eller f&#228;ngelse &#228;ven om de inte rent r&#228;ttsligt r&#228;knas som n&#229;gon annans egendom. </p><p>En annan form &#228;r n&#228;r n&#229;gon tvingas arbeta f&#246;r att betala av en skuld eller n&#228;r en person &#228;r beroende av sin minimala l&#246;n f&#246;r att &#246;verleva. Livegenskap refererar till situationer d&#228;r arbetare &#228;r knutna till marken de bor p&#229;, tvingas betala skatt och s&#228;llan f&#229;r flytta eller gifta sig som de sj&#228;lva vill, medan sexuellt slaveri &#228;r ytterligare en typ &#8211; sannolikt den mest f&#246;rekommande i v&#228;stv&#228;rlden idag.</p><p>Genom en historisk, sn&#228;vare lins &#228;r en slav en m&#228;nniska som vanligtvis f&#246;rslavats genom n&#229;gon form av v&#229;ld, som lyder under en annan m&#228;nniska, saknar sj&#228;lvbest&#228;mmande, ses som egendom, kan k&#246;pas och s&#228;ljas, tvingas utf&#246;ra jobb eller tj&#228;nster och som inte styr &#246;ver sin egen sexualitet eller reproduktiva system.</p><p>&#197;r 1400-talet, n&#228;r Portugal b&#246;rjade utforska Afrika, var slaveri fortfarande vanligt f&#246;rekommande &#228;ven i Europa och Mellan&#246;stern. I de m&#229;nga och &#229;terkommande krigen mellan kristna och muslimska kungad&#246;men tog b&#229;da sidor varandra som slavar. </p><p>P&#229; 1500-talet blev krigsf&#229;ngar ofta gal&#228;rslavar, personer som kedjades fast vid &#229;rorna p&#229; stora fartyg och under hot om v&#229;ld tvingades ro. </p><p>Och fr&#229;n 1600-talet och fram&#229;t utgjorde den nordafrikanska kusten v&#228;ster om Egypten den &#246;k&#228;nda s&#229; kallade <strong>Barbareskkusten</strong>. D&#228;r hade muslimska pirater sina baser och gav sig ut p&#229; haven f&#246;r att kidnappa europ&#233;er. De flesta offer blev krigsf&#229;ngar och l&#228;mnades tillbaka mot en l&#246;sensumma, andra gjordes till slavar och sattes i arbete.</p><p>Precis som i resten av v&#228;rlden har slaveri en l&#229;ng historia p&#229; den subsahariska kontinenten och bedrevs p&#229; m&#229;nga olika s&#228;tt. Som en massiv kontinent pr&#228;glad av en ofantlig m&#229;ngfald vad g&#228;ller folk, kulturer, spr&#229;k, religioner och traditioner g&#229;r det allts&#229; inte att tala om <em>ett</em> specifikt slaveri.</p><p>Men generellt skilde sig slavsystemen fr&#229;n den senare transatlantiska varianten och n&#229;gra vanligt f&#246;rekommande k&#228;nnetecken var exempelvis att de f&#246;rslavade p&#229; vissa platser kunde gifta sig, &#228;ga egendom och med tiden bli medlem av en familj. I de samh&#228;llena hade de f&#246;rslavade en annan mobilitet &#228;n de f&#246;rslavade senare skulle ha i exempelvis <strong>USA</strong>, d&#228;r de s&#229;gs p&#229; som boskap. I USA saknade slavar helt m&#246;jligheten att r&#246;ra sig upp i samh&#228;llet samtidigt som deras barn &#8211; f&#246;dda som of&#246;dda &#8211; ocks&#229; var d&#246;mda till samma &#246;de.</p><p>Med det sagt fanns det i Afrika ocks&#229; samh&#228;llen d&#228;r de f&#246;rslavades liv var s&#228;rskilt h&#229;rt, d&#228;r de exempelvis inte fick beblanda sig med fria inv&#229;nare eller kunde f&#246;rlora livet som offer i en begravningsritual.</p><p>En annan uppenbar skillnad med den transatlantiska handeln var att de inhemska afrikanska slavsystemen inte handlade om ras eller hudf&#228;rg, eftersom b&#229;de offer och f&#246;r&#246;vare var vad vi idag skulle kalla svarta. </p><p>Det har ibland bidragit till en bild av Afrika som s&#228;rskilt ociviliserat, ungef&#228;r som att afrikanerna &#8221;s&#229;lde sina egna&#8221; och d&#228;rf&#246;r var v&#228;rre &#228;n europ&#233;erna som hade den goda smaken att &#229;tminstone inte uts&#228;tta sitt &#8221;eget folk&#8221; f&#246;r hemskheterna. Men denna bild &#228;r grovt missvisande. </p><p>Det kanske vanligaste s&#228;ttet att bli f&#246;rslavad p&#229; i Afrika var att man var p&#229; den f&#246;rlorande sidan av ett krig. Precis som att identiteten som europ&#233;er s&#228;llan har stoppat engelsm&#228;n, fransm&#228;n, svenskar eller tyskar fr&#229;n att kriga med varandra, har den f&#246;rh&#229;llandevis moderna identiteten som afrikaner inte hindrat afrikanska samh&#228;llen fr&#229;n att utk&#228;mpa er&#246;vringskrig mot varandra.</p><p>Andra f&#246;rekommande, men mindre vanliga s&#228;tt, var att slaveri var ett straff man d&#246;mdes till, eller att man tillf&#228;lligt s&#229;lde sig sj&#228;lv in i slaveri som en s&#228;tt att betala tillbaka en skuld. Afrikanerna som handlade med f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskor s&#229;g det i regel allts&#229; inte som att de s&#229;lde &#8220;sina egna&#8221; eller sina &#8221;afrikanska br&#246;der&#8221;. De s&#229;g det som att de s&#229;lde fiender, fr&#228;mlingar, kriminella eller o&#246;nskade.</p><p>&#214;verlag handlade de olika slavsystemen i Afrika mer om status, makt och inflytande &#228;n om pengar och produktion. Det som f&#246;r&#228;ndrades med den europeiska n&#228;rvaron i Afrika var slaveriets omfattning. Det var under europeisk flagg som den afrikanska slavhandeln gick fr&#229;n en i j&#228;mf&#246;relse marginell f&#246;reteelse till ett maskineri, en hel industri<em>, </em>vars konsekvenser vi k&#228;nner av &#228;n idag.</p><p>&#196;ven om det fanns v&#228;lorganiserade hierarkiska samh&#228;llen som praktiserade slaveri innan europ&#233;erna anl&#228;nde &#8211; som det tidigare n&#228;mnda Maliimperiet &#8211; var dessa undantagen. De flesta stora afrikanska slavhandelsimperier, som <strong>Dahomey</strong>, <strong>Ashanti</strong> och <strong>Sokotokalifatet</strong>, bildades efter att den transatlantiska slavhandeln redan hade b&#246;rjat, och de gav sig in i handeln f&#246;r att anskaffa skjutvapen, lyxvaror och andra saker f&#246;r att st&#228;rka sitt grepp om makten. </p><p>Innan dess var det vanligare att slaveri spelade en mindre roll i de flesta v&#228;st- och centralafrikanska samh&#228;llen. S&#228;rskilt j&#228;mf&#246;rt med m&#229;nga av de nya kolonier som europ&#233;er bildade p&#229; andra sidan Atlanten, d&#228;r hela ekonomin kom att kretsa kring slaveri. Dessa kolonier blev verkliga slavsamh&#228;llen.</p><p>Dock: p&#229;pekandet av n&#229;gra av skillnaderna mellan den transatlantiska slavhandeln och Afrikas inhemska slaveri b&#246;r inte missf&#246;rst&#229;s som att det senare r&#246;rde sig om en godartad variant. Slaveri, i alla dess former, &#228;r per definition f&#246;rkastligt.</p><h3>Portugal i br&#228;schen</h3><p>P&#229; mitten av 1400-talet var det fortfarande guld som portugiserna mest ville &#229;t och vid det h&#228;r laget hade handeln med v&#228;stafrikanska riken visat s&#229;dan potential att den portugisiska kronan kontrakterade den ber&#246;mde portugisiske handelsmannen <strong>Fern&#227;o Gomes</strong>. I utbyte mot att Gomes fick monopol p&#229; all handel s&#246;der om<strong> Kap Verde</strong>-&#246;arna, gick han med p&#229; att betala en &#229;rsavgift och att s&#228;lja all elfenben han kom &#246;ver till den portugisiska kronan till ett f&#246;rm&#229;nligt pris. Men den mest avg&#246;rande punkten han gick med p&#229; var att han uppl&#228;t sin flotta av fartyg att &#229;rligen forts&#228;tta utforska ungef&#228;r 48 till 64 mil av den afrikanska kustlinjen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-BDT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1184e21-f53c-454a-a3ae-33730da6f008_960x720.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-BDT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1184e21-f53c-454a-a3ae-33730da6f008_960x720.heic 424w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta f&#246;rest&#228;llande Portugals utforskande av Afrika och Asien.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Med den nya &#246;verenskommelsen avl&#246;ste framstegen varandra. I det som idag &#228;r <strong>Liberia</strong> utvecklades en handel med meleguetapeppar, som ibland g&#229;tt under namnet paradiskorn. Det gav med tiden den h&#228;r regionen namnet <strong>Pepparkusten</strong>.</p><p>De portugisiska fartygen fortsatte &#246;sterut och fann en stor tillg&#229;ng till elfenben i de t&#228;ta skogarna som str&#228;ckte sig &#228;nda ner mot str&#228;nderna. Det gav med tiden den regionen namnet <strong>Elfenbenskusten</strong>. Och 1471, n&#228;r portugiserna gick i land i det som idag &#228;r Ghana, fann man det man n&#228;stan 60 &#229;r tidigare f&#246;rst gett sig ut f&#246;r att hitta: guld. Att det fanns i stora m&#228;ngder n&#229;nstans i n&#228;rheten blev uppenbart eftersom massvis av inv&#229;narna i de olika byarna de st&#246;tte p&#229; bar det som smycken. Med samma tradition av namngivning skulle hela regionen senare bli k&#228;nd som <strong>Guldkusten</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic" width="1456" height="843" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:843,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:639001,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/196767793?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6tk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7bd1dfb-f72e-4378-9d8b-8aef3c563db3_2876x1666.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Del av Cantino planisphere, en portugisisk v&#228;rldskarta fr&#229;n 1502. H&#228;r syns V&#228;stafrika, med Elmina-f&#228;stningen i mitten.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det portugiserna bytte mot guldet var kl&#228;desplagg men fr&#228;mst olika typer av metaller. Manillor, armband av brons, m&#228;ssing eller koppar formade som en h&#228;stsko, producerades i Europa och skeppades ned mot den v&#228;stafrikanska kusten d&#228;r de kom att fungera som ett betalningsmedel f&#246;r produkterna portugiserna k&#246;pte.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic" width="700" height="656" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:656,&quot;width&quot;:700,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:21005,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/196767793?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bhYS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b6a8a25-9f97-4225-885c-26d3fc5f36fa_700x656.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">En s&#229; kallad manilla.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Traditionen av j&#228;rntillverkning str&#228;cker sig flera tusen &#229;r tillbaka i V&#228;stafrika, s&#229; de afrikanska samh&#228;llen som portugiserna kom i kontakt med hade tillg&#229;ng till egna j&#228;rnverktyg och -vapen. Problemet var att mineralerna fanns i r&#228;tt sm&#229; kvantiteter. Eftersom det hade skett innovationer inom den europeiska j&#228;rnindustrin som &#246;kade produktionstakten i Europa blev det mer attraktivt f&#246;r afrikanska riken att importera j&#228;rn d&#228;rifr&#229;n. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic" width="1319" height="650" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UHJC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6aa265f-6c3d-4230-90c5-ea0ed26169ff_1319x650.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Kaurisn&#228;ckor, som ocks&#229; anv&#228;ndes som valuta i delar av V&#228;st- och Centralafrika.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Manillorna var inget nytt fenomen, tidigare hade man importerat dem fr&#229;n Nordafrika, s&#229; det blev inte en ny marknad, snarare en ytterligare. Andra former av valuta som anv&#228;ndes i V&#228;st- och Centralafrika var tyger och, &#228;nnu mer, kaurisn&#228;ckor, som importerades fr&#229;n muslimska handelsm&#228;n &#228;nda fr&#229;n indiska oceanen.</p><h3>Konkurrensen h&#229;rdnar</h3><p>Portugal hade l&#228;nge haft ett f&#246;rspr&#229;ng i utforskandet av Afrika, men det var ett f&#246;rspr&#229;ng som andra europeiska l&#228;nder f&#246;rs&#246;kte ta in. &#197;r 1478 utmynnade konkurrensen mellan Portugal och det spanska kungariket <strong>Kastilien</strong> i ett sj&#246;slag utanf&#246;r den ghananska kusten, ett slag som portugiserna vann &#246;vertygande. Fredsf&#246;rhandlingar f&#246;ljde och snart skrev parterna p&#229; det s&#229; kallade <strong>Alc&#225;&#231;ovasf&#246;rdraget</strong>. </p><p>I &#246;verenskommelsen gick Portugal med p&#229; att ge upp sina krav p&#229; den kastilianska tronen samt att erk&#228;nna spansk kontroll &#246;ver Kanarie&#246;arna. Men i utbyte fick portugiserna r&#228;tt till alla landomr&#229;den som uppt&#228;ckts, eller skulle uppt&#228;ckas, s&#246;der om Kanarie&#246;arna, vilket i praktiken innebar hela Afrika s&#246;der om Sahara.</p><p>Under de tv&#229; kommande decennierna fortsatte den portugisiska guldhandeln i V&#228;stafrika att dra in enorma summor och i den amerikanske journalisten <strong>Howard W. Frenchs</strong> bok <em>Born in Blackness </em>argumenterar han f&#246;r att det fick oanade konsekvenser:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Lissabons nya monopol &#246;ver V&#228;stafrikas enorma guldtillg&#229;ngar l&#228;mnade Spanien med inget annat val &#228;n att v&#229;ga sig l&#229;ngt bortom Herkules pelare och sj&#246;s&#228;tta nya f&#246;rs&#246;k att utforska Atlantens v&#228;stliga extremiteter. Med andra ord, Portugals nyvunna rikedom drev p&#229; Spaniens besatthet av att hitta egna k&#228;llor till den v&#228;rdefulla metallen.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Fortet El Mina, eller Elmina, var det fotf&#228;ste portugiserna s&#229; l&#228;nge hoppats p&#229; att f&#229; p&#229; den afrikanska kontinenten. I flera sekler hade muslimska handelsm&#228;n handlat till sig guld fr&#229;n denna region och sedan transporterat det norrut via v&#228;stafrikanska riken som Mali och <strong>Songhai</strong>, genom Sahara och vidare till Nordafrika och Mellan&#246;stern. Men nu b&#246;rjade en st&#246;rre andel av guldet ist&#228;llet g&#229; s&#246;derut mot portugisernas fort vid kusten. Fr&#229;n Elmina kunde portugiserna sedan skicka regelbundna guldlaster till hemlandet, guldlaster som var avg&#246;rande f&#246;r att f&#246;rvandla Portugal fr&#229;n ett fattigt och obetydligt h&#246;rn av Europa till en kolonial supermakt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic" width="1024" height="723" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:723,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:138685,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/196767793?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bRdx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5af610df-d566-48db-96ca-20297e3a04c8_1024x723.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fort Elmina, som det ser ut idag. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Samtidigt som guldet fortsatte g&#246;da den portugisiska ekonomin, fortsatte deras utforskande av Afrika och nu var finansierandet av det mindre av ett problem.</p><p>&#197;r 1483 kom portugiserna i kontakt med <strong>Kongoriket</strong>, tv&#229; &#229;r senare med kungad&#246;met <strong>Benin</strong> i nuvarande <strong>Nigeria</strong>. N&#228;r de gick i land p&#229; flera av dessa platser restes s&#229; kallade padr&#227;os f&#246;r att markera deras ankomst: tr&#228;- eller stenpelare som ofta hade ett kors p&#229; toppen.</p><p>&#197;r 1488 n&#229;dde portugiserna slutligen <strong>Kap Agulhas</strong>, den afrikanska kontinentens sydligaste punkt. Men de blev inte l&#229;ngvariga utan fortsatte upp l&#228;ngs &#246;stra Afrikas kust och fann tio &#229;r senare, genom <strong>Vasco Da Gama</strong>, slutligen sj&#246;v&#228;gen till Indien.</p><h3><strong>Socker och blod</strong></h3><p>Medan guldlasterna fortsatte att skeppas till Portugal uppt&#228;ckte portugiserna allt mer det lukrativa i slavhandeln. Det skulle dr&#246;ja l&#228;nge innan just bef&#228;stningen vid Elmina skulle bli ett slavfort, men l&#228;ngs den v&#228;st- och centralafrikanska kusten fann m&#229;nga andra omr&#229;den d&#228;r slavhandeln inledde sin exponentiella framv&#228;xt.</p><p>En av huvudkomponenterna var sockerr&#246;ret, en v&#228;xt med ursprung i Sydostasien och som via handelsm&#228;n l&#229;ngsamt spreds v&#228;sterut. I samband med europ&#233;ernas uppt&#228;cktsf&#228;rder tog sig v&#228;xten &#246;ver havet och planterades i nya regioner och v&#228;rldsdelar.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic" width="900" height="505" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:505,&quot;width&quot;:900,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:131962,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/196767793?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hW3u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8632b81-e553-4810-bcd0-b15fd9842692_900x505.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#214;gruppen Madeira utanf&#246;r Marockos kust hade i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1420-talet blivit en av Portugals f&#246;rsta kolonier. Snart introducerades sockerr&#246;ret och n&#229;gra decennier senare gick produktionen p&#229; h&#246;gvarv, i allt st&#246;rre utstr&#228;ckning med hj&#228;lp av afrikanska slavar. Under n&#229;gra &#229;r i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1500-talet var Madeira en av v&#228;rldens fr&#228;msta sockerproducenter. En liknande utveckling utspelade sig p&#229;<strong> S&#227;o Tom&#233;</strong> i Guineabukten.</p><p>Men, vid den h&#228;r tiden hade europ&#233;er hittat till <strong>Amerika</strong>, vilket skapade v&#228;ldiga kommersiella m&#246;jligheter. Ist&#228;llet f&#246;r sm&#229; &#246;ar i Atlanten eller utanf&#246;r den afrikanska kusten, hade man nu pl&#246;tsligt hittat nya hela v&#228;rldsdelar att l&#228;gga under sig, med till synes o&#228;ndlig mark att odla och o&#246;versk&#229;dliga m&#228;ngder metaller att utvinna.</p><p>Men f&#246;r att g&#246;ra det m&#246;jligt, och dessutom g&#246;ra det s&#229; snabbt och inkomstbringande som det bara gick, kr&#228;vdes en gigantisk arbetskraft av s&#228;llan sk&#229;dat slag. Slavhandeln var nu redo att g&#229; in i en ny fas, en fas f&#246;renad med en om&#228;tbar m&#228;ngd pengar, v&#229;ld och lidande.</p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;7bac53ed-dafc-4b2b-9635-71a4a5c624b6&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&#8221;Det f&#246;rsta som m&#246;tte mig n&#228;r jag kom till kusten var havet och ett slavfartyg, som d&#229; l&#229;g f&#246;r ankare och v&#228;ntade p&#229; sin last. Det fyllde mig med h&#228;pnad, som snart f&#246;rvandlades till skr&#228;ck n&#228;r jag bars ombord. Bes&#228;ttningen unders&#246;kte mig omedelbart f&#246;r att se om jag var frisk, och jag blev nu &#246;vertygad om att jag hade hamnat i en v&#228;rld av onda andar, oc&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Transatlantiska slaveriet, del 2&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2026-05-13T05:06:37.446Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ax5Q!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdea074b8-a3c5-423b-ae04-4df1ef1b39b7_1000x663.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/transatlantiska-slaveriet-del-2&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:197348477,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:1,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h3><strong>L&#228;s mer:</strong></h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker: </strong><br><br><em>The Chronicle of Discovery and Conquest of Guinea </em>av Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453)</p><p><em>Capitalism and Slavery </em>av Eric Williams (1944)</p><p><em>Plagues and Peoples </em>av William H. McNeill (1976<em>)</em></p><p><em>Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study </em>av Orlando Patterson (1982)</p><p><em>The African Slave Trade </em>av Basil Davidson (1988)</p><p><em>Africa: A Biography of the Continent </em>av John Reader (1997)</p><p><em>Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 </em>av John Thornton (1998)</p><p><em>Prince Henry &#8221;the Navigator&#8221;: A Life </em>av Peter Russell (2000)</p><p><em>Pawnship, Slavery And Colonialism In Africa</em> av Toyin Falola och Paul E. Lovejoy (red.) (2003)</p><p><em>A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana: From the 15th to the 19th Century </em>av Akosua Adoma Perbi (2004)</p><p><em>The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slaves in Louisiana&#8217;s Cane World, 1820&#8211;1860 </em>av Richard J. Follet (2005)</p><p><em>The Atlantic Slave Trade </em>av Herbert S. Klein (2010)</p><p><em>Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa </em>av Paul E. Lovejoy (2012)</p><p><em>A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present </em>av Richard J. Reid (2012)</p><p><em>The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor </em>av Martin Meredith (2014)</p><p><em>The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation </em>av David Brion Davis (2014)</p><p><em>What is Slavery? </em>av Brenda E. Stevenson (2015)</p><p><em>A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise of the Slave Trade to the Age of Revolution </em>av Toby Green (2019)</p><p><em>Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War </em>av Howard W. French (2021).</p><p><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History&#8221; av J.D. Fage i <em>The Journal of African History </em>(vol. 10, nr 3, 1969)</p><p><em>Slavery in Africa &#8211; Historical and Anthropological Perspectives </em>av Igor Kopytoff och Suzanne Miers (1979)</p><p>&#8221;What Africans Got for Their Slaves: A Master List of European Trade Goods&#8221; av Stanley B. Alpern i <em>History in Africa </em>(vol. 22, 1995)</p><p>&#8221;The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas&#8221; av Michael Tadman i <em>The American Historical Review </em>(vol. 103, nr 5, 2000)</p><p>&#8221;Madeira, Sugar, and the Conquest of Nature in the &#8217;First&#8217; Sixteenth Century, Part II: From Regional Crisis to Commodity Frontier, 1506&#8211;1530&#8221; av Jason W. Moore i <em>Review </em>(vol. 33, nr 1, 2010)</p><p>&#8221;&#8216;Voyage Iron&#8217;: An Atlantic Slave Trade Currency, its European Origins, and West African Impact&#8221; av Chris Evans och G&#246;ran Ryd&#233;n i <em>Past &amp; Present </em>(vol. 239, nr 1, 2018)</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Vicente Guerrero och det mexikanska frihetskriget]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#197;r 1808 ockuperades Spanien av Napoleons franska trupper, n&#229;got som fick konsekvenser l&#229;ngt utanf&#246;r Europas gr&#228;nser.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vicente-guerrero-och-det-mexikanska</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vicente-guerrero-och-det-mexikanska</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 02 Apr 2026 07:58:37 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic" width="1456" height="1125" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_HtG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe1bf896c-32b5-4a2e-a19e-2cb0d4b42754_3840x2966.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Francisco Goyas ber&#246;mda m&#229;lning El tres de mayo de 1808 en Madrid fr&#229;n 1814, som skildrar krigets fasor under den franska ockupationen av Spanien.</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>&#197;r 1808 ockuperades <strong>Spanien</strong> av <strong>Napoleons</strong> franska trupper, n&#229;got som fick konsekvenser l&#229;ngt utanf&#246;r Europas gr&#228;nser. I kolonin <strong>Nya Spanien</strong>, d&#228;r det som i dag &#228;r <strong>Mexiko</strong> ingick, hade id&#233;er om &#246;kat sj&#228;lvstyre cirkulerat under l&#229;ng tid. Men n&#228;r den spanska kronan f&#246;rsvagades i samband med den franska offensiven gick delar av kolonin fr&#229;n reformkrav till &#246;ppet uppror.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic" width="1456" height="1094" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8myL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdc98f777-697a-4019-a19b-4ad4f7f5c2da_3840x2884.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Karta f&#246;rest&#228;llande Nya Spanien &#229;r 1819.</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>Tv&#229; &#229;r senare inleddes det mexikanska frihetskriget under ledning av den katolske pr&#228;sten <strong>Miguel Hidalgo</strong>. Upproret slogs brutalt ned av kolonialmakten och Hidalgo tillf&#229;ngatogs och avr&#228;ttades &#229;ret d&#228;rp&#229;. Men kampen dog inte med honom. Varje g&#229;ng spanjorerna trodde att de hade kv&#228;st revolten tr&#228;dde nya ledare fram.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic" width="1124" height="1541" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/bcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1541,&quot;width&quot;:1124,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:532469,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192839024?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wSLd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcec2c12-e92c-4dce-a57b-806ea554df40_1124x1541.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Vicente Guerrero.</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>En av dem var <strong>Vicente Guerrero</strong>. Han f&#246;ddes i <strong>Tixtla</strong> och anses ha haft b&#229;de afrikanska och inhemska r&#246;tter. Innan han ansl&#246;t sig till upproret f&#246;rs&#246;rjde han sig som <em>arriero</em> &#8211; en transport&#246;r av varor med hj&#228;lp av mulor &#8211; ett yrke som gav honom god k&#228;nnedom om regionens geografi. Guerrero utm&#228;rkte sig tidigt i kriget och kom s&#229; sm&#229;ningom att bli en av rebellr&#246;relsens mest centrala gestalter.</p><p>Slaveriet hade funnits i Nya Spanien sedan kolonialtidens b&#246;rjan och spelade fortfarande en roll i vissa sektorer, men var vid 1800-talets b&#246;rjan mindre utbrett &#228;n i m&#229;nga andra delar av Amerika.</p><p>Trots att de som fortfarande var f&#246;rslavade utsattes f&#246;r hemskheter och f&#246;rtryck var slavsystemet i Nya Spanien inte lika strikt institutionaliserat som i <strong>USA</strong>, vilket ledde till att det var vanligare med &#8221;bland&#228;ktenskap&#8221; och att f&#246;rslavade kunde k&#246;pa sig fria. M&#228;nniskor med afrikanskt ursprung, b&#229;de fria och f&#246;rslavade, utgjorde en viktig del av befolkningen.</p><p>Det koloniala samh&#228;llet var organiserat genom ett komplext kastsystem, d&#228;r m&#228;nniskor kategoriserades utifr&#229;n h&#228;rkomst. P&#229; 1700-talet blev s&#229; kallade <em>casta paintings</em> popul&#228;ra: m&#229;lningar som illustrerade ett idealiserat system av olika &#8220;rasblandningar&#8221;, ofta framst&#228;llda som sexton kategorier. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic" width="707" height="1156" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1156,&quot;width&quot;:707,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:249377,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192839024?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zHvf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98b2ceee-5457-4b54-995d-fca41d5a90ea_707x1156.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Kastm&#229;lning av konstn&#228;ren Ignacio Maria Barreda &#229;r 1777.</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>De inkluderade exempelvis <em>mestizo</em> (spansk och inhemsk bakgrund), <em>mulato</em> (spansk och afrikansk) och <em>zambo</em> (afrikansk och inhemsk). Precis som p&#229; m&#229;nga andra platser i v&#228;rlden placerades m&#228;nniskor med afrikanskt ursprung l&#228;ngst ner i hierarkin, medan de med europeisk bakgrund stod h&#246;gst.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Under krigets g&#229;ng var Guerrero till en b&#246;rjan &#246;ppen f&#246;r kompromisser som kunde ge kolonin &#246;kat sj&#228;lvstyre inom det spanska imperiet. Men utvecklingen i Spanien kom att p&#229;verka hans h&#229;llning. N&#228;r Spanien &#229;r 1812 antog en ny konstitution gav den visserligen medborgarskap till stora delar av imperiets fria befolkning, men i praktiken utesl&#246;ts m&#229;nga med afrikanskt ursprung fr&#229;n fulla politiska r&#228;ttigheter. F&#246;r Guerrero blev detta en avg&#246;rande signal: verklig frihet kr&#228;vde full sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet.</p><p>&#197;r 1821 hade kriget p&#229;g&#229;tt i &#246;ver ett decennium och utmattat b&#229;da sidor. I ett avg&#246;rande skede lyckades Guerrero f&#229; &#246;ver general <strong>Agust&#237;n de Iturbide</strong>, ledaren f&#246;r den spanska kronans trupper, till sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighetssidan. Tillsammans enades de om en gemensam vision f&#246;r ett nytt Mexiko. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic" width="1456" height="1092" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1092,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:962719,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192839024?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kd1k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25f9ff99-7997-4da2-b16a-377a7edddd76_3056x2292.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>M&#229;lningen Abrazo de Acatempan av konstn&#228;ren Rom&#225;n Sagredo (1870), f&#246;rest&#228;llande stunden d&#229; Agust&#237;n de Iturbide och Vincente Guerrero kom &#246;verens. </em></figcaption></figure></div><p>Med majoriteten av befolkningen p&#229; rebellernas sida och de spanska trupperna demoraliserade efter utdragna strider, tappade Spanien slutligen greppet om kolonin. I september samma &#229;r utropade Mexiko sin sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet.</p><p>Sommaren 1822 kr&#246;ntes Iturbide till kejsare &#246;ver det nybildade mexikanska imperiet under grandiosa former. Men mots&#228;ttningarna mellan Iturbide och den politiska eliten, som i h&#246;g grad kretsade kring maktf&#246;rdelningen mellan honom och kongressen, blev snabbt tydliga. Efter en period av konflikter och politisk instabilitet tvingades han abdikera 1823. En provisorisk regering tog &#246;ver, och kort d&#228;refter utropades Mexiko till republik med generalen <strong>Guadalupe Victoria </strong>som dess f&#246;rsta president.</p><p>Vicente Guerreros status som krigshj&#228;lte och frihetsk&#228;mpe gjorde honom till en naturlig politisk ledargestalt, men i 1828 &#229;rs presidentval besegrades han formellt av general <strong>Manuel G&#243;mez Pedraza</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic" width="1280" height="1555" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1555,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:317092,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192839024?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gPuy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc064bcca-3ca0-4b4f-ad51-dbe01b82b86c_1280x1555.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Portr&#228;tt f&#246;rest&#228;llande Manuel G&#243;mez Pedraza, m&#229;lat &#229;r 1828. </em></figcaption></figure></div><p>Valresultatet blev omtvistat och ledde till ett uppror som tvingade Pedraza att g&#229; i exil. Det banade v&#228;g f&#246;r att Vicente Guerrero &#228;nd&#229; kunde tilltr&#228;da som president den 1 april 1829. Han blev d&#228;rmed, s&#229;vitt historiker kunnat fastst&#228;lla, den f&#246;rsta statschefen i Amerika med r&#246;tter i b&#229;de den amerikanska urbefolkningen och den afrikanska diasporan, vilket v&#228;ckte motst&#229;nd bland delar av den konservativa eliten.</p><p>Som president profilerade sig Guerrero som en f&#246;rk&#228;mpe f&#246;r landets fattiga och marginaliserade grupper. I september 1829 fattade han ett historiskt beslut: han avskaffade slaveriet i Mexiko. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic" width="1280" height="1604" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1604,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:425315,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192839024?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GLOm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00b52001-7084-46a6-a587-ab5db9f25e4a_1280x1604.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Portr&#228;tt f&#246;rest&#228;llande Vincente Guerrero, m&#229;lat av konstn&#228;ren Anacleto Escutia &#229;r 1850.</em></figcaption></figure></div><p>Reformen var revolutionerande, men bidrog ocks&#229; till &#246;kade konflikter. Inte minst i <strong>Texas</strong> &#8211; d&#229; fortfarande en del av Mexiko &#8211; d&#228;r m&#229;nga inflyttade amerikanska bos&#228;ttare var slav&#228;gare och motsatte sig den mexikanska statens politik. Avskaffandet av slaveriet var en av flera bidragande faktorer de &#246;kande sp&#228;nningarna i Texas. Konflikterna kulminerade n&#229;gra &#229;r senare i <em>Texasrevolutionen 1835&#8211;1836</em>, d&#229; omr&#229;det br&#246;t sig loss fr&#229;n Mexiko, och 1845 inf&#246;rlivades i USA.</p><p>Guerrero gjorde avtryck men hans tid vid makten blev kort. Hans progressiva reformer och det s&#228;tt p&#229; vilket han kommit till makten &#246;kade hotbilden mot honom. Bara tre m&#229;nader efter slaveriets avskaffande gjorde hans konservative vicepresident, <strong>Anastasio Bustamante</strong>, uppror.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic" width="1280" height="1746" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!exvQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96800204-a2c5-46c7-89f0-b2fbfc2ed983_1280x1746.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Portr&#228;tt f&#246;rest&#228;llande Anastasio Bustamante, m&#229;lat cirka 1830. Konstn&#228;r ok&#228;nd. </em></figcaption></figure></div><p>Guerrero drogs in i ett kaotiskt gerillakrig. Hans trupper vann en rad viktiga slag, men till slut f&#246;ll han offer f&#246;r ett bakh&#229;ll. Sj&#246;kaptenen <strong>Francisco Picaluga</strong> fr&#229;n stadsstaten <strong>Genoa</strong> i nuvarande <strong>Italien</strong> v&#228;lkomnade Guerrero ombord p&#229; sitt fartyg i januari 1831. Men ist&#228;llet f&#246;r den middag som utlovats tillf&#229;ngatogs Guerrero och &#246;verl&#228;mnades till sina fiender.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vicente-guerrero-och-det-mexikanska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vicente-guerrero-och-det-mexikanska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Till skillnad fr&#229;n andra st&#246;rtade ledare erbj&#246;ds Guerrero varken exil eller m&#246;jlighet att abdikera. Han avr&#228;ttades i februari 1831. Somliga historiker har argumenterat f&#246;r att anledningen var hans klasstillh&#246;righet och mixade ursprung, och likvideringen ska i s&#229; fall ha varit ett s&#228;tt f&#246;r den mexikanska eliten att avskr&#228;cka &#8221;l&#228;gre st&#229;ende&#8221; fr&#229;n att ha f&#246;r h&#246;ga ambitioner.</p><p>Idag betraktas Vicente Guerrero som en mexikansk nationalhj&#228;lte. Delstaten Guerrero b&#228;r hans namn, och hans insatser i sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighetskriget och kampen f&#246;r j&#228;mlikhet har gett honom en central plats i landets historia.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic" width="1280" height="1920" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1920,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:312782,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192839024?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bnNX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F612095b2-1d4f-4039-819c-13ff19f016ac_1280x1920.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Staty f&#246;rest&#228;llande Vicente Guerrero i Nuevo Laredo.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Mexikos sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet f&#246;r&#228;ndrade landets politiska status &#8211; men erk&#228;nnandet av vilka som fullt ut tillh&#246;r nationen kom l&#229;ngt senare. F&#246;rst 1992 definierades landet officiellt som en m&#229;ngkulturell nation med r&#246;tter i inhemska, europeiska och afrikanska traditioner. </p><p>N&#228;r landets statistikmyndighet 2015 b&#246;rjade inkludera fr&#229;gor om afro&#228;ttlingar var det f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen m&#229;nga mexikaner fick m&#246;jlighet att identifiera sig som afromexikaner. I folkr&#228;kningen 2020 inf&#246;rdes kategorin fullt ut, och n&#228;r resultaten presenterades &#229;ret d&#228;rp&#229; uppgav omkring 2,5 miljoner m&#228;nniskor att de identifierade sig som afromexikaner.</p><div><hr></div><h3>L&#228;s mer: </h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>The Mexican Republic: The First Decade, 1823&#8211;1832</em> av Stanley Green (1987)</p><p><em>La Revoluci&#243;n: Mexico&#8217;s Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History </em>av Thomas Benjamin (2000)</p><p><em>The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero, Mexico&#8217;s First Black Indian President</em> av Theodore Vincent (2001)<br><br><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar</strong></p><p>&#8221;The Contributions of Mexico&#8217;s First Black Indian President, Vicente Guerrero&#8221; av Theodore G. Vincent i <em>The Journal of Negro History </em>(vol. 86, nr 2, 2001)<br><br><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;Mexico &#8217;discovers&#8217; 1.4 million black Mexicans &#8212; they just had to ask&#8221; av Rafa Fernandez De Castro f&#246;r <em>Fusion</em> (15 december 2015)  </p><p>&#8221;We exist. We&#8217;re here&#8217;: Afro-Mexicans make the census after long struggle for recognition&#8221; av David Agren f&#246;r <em>The Guardian</em> (19 mars 2020)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Patrice Lumumba och Kongos saboterade frigörelse]]></title><description><![CDATA[H&#228;romveckan skedde ett ov&#228;ntat genombrott i fallet p&#229; ett av historiens gr&#246;vsta och mest uppm&#228;rksammade politikermord.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/patrice-lumumba-och-kongos-saboterade</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/patrice-lumumba-och-kongos-saboterade</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 25 Mar 2026 15:12:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>H&#228;romveckan skedde ett ov&#228;ntat genombrott i fallet p&#229; ett av historiens gr&#246;vsta och mest uppm&#228;rksammade politikermord. En belgisk domstol beslutade att den belgiske diplomaten och f&#246;rre EU-kommission&#228;ren &#201;tienne Davignon, 93 &#229;r gammal, ska kunna st&#228;llas inf&#246;r r&#228;tta f&#246;r hans inblandning i mordet p&#229; Patrice Lumumba, Kongos f&#246;rste premi&#228;rminister.</strong></p><p><strong>Men vem var Lumumba? Varf&#246;r m&#246;rdades han? Och vad blev konsekvenserna? Det h&#228;r &#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen om Kongos saboterade frig&#246;relse.</strong></p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic" width="400" height="383" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:383,&quot;width&quot;:400,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:38490,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192083067?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!x4MA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0c3264e1-3450-4cbf-a5d3-2f6f3eff399d_400x383.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">En ung Patrice Lumumba n&#229;gon g&#229;ng p&#229; 1950-talet.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Patrice Lumumba f&#246;ddes 1925 i <strong>Belgiska Kongos </strong>Kasaiprovins. Han hade bara n&#229;gra &#229;rs utbildning, vilket var vanligt d&#229; kongolesers skolg&#229;ng begr&#228;nsades av den belgiska kolonialmakten, men beskrevs som ambiti&#246;s och intelligent. P&#229; egen hand kompletterade han sina studier och l&#228;rde sig att prata flytande franska.</p><p>Efter att ha tillbringat sitt unga vuxna liv som &#246;lf&#246;rs&#228;ljare och posttj&#228;nsteman avtj&#228;nade han ett ett&#229;rigt f&#228;ngelsestraff f&#246;r f&#246;rskingring i mitten av femtiotalet. 1958 gick han samman med andra unga kongoleser och grundade partiet <em>Mouvement National Congolais </em>(<strong>MNC</strong>). Med sin penna och sina retoriska f&#228;rdigheter blev Lumumba &#8211; l&#229;ngsmal, stilig och karismatisk &#8211; en popul&#228;r r&#246;st i kampen f&#246;r sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet.</p><p>Krav p&#229; frihet hade h&#246;jts tidigare, men p&#229; femtiotalet bl&#229;ste den revolution&#228;ra andan liv i motst&#229;ndet. I januari 1959 br&#246;t protester ut i <strong>L&#233;opoldville</strong>, dagens <strong>Kinshasa</strong>, och intensiteten chockade belgarna som tvingades utlova ett vagt reformpaket.</p><p>Detta var en tid av politisk organisering i Belgiska Kongo och i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1960 hade &#246;ver hundra politiska grupperingar formats. N&#228;stan alla vilade p&#229; en grund av etnisk tillh&#246;righet &#8211; naturligt i en etniskt heterogen nation d&#228;r inv&#229;narna tvingats samman inom artificiella landgr&#228;nser. Men Patrice Lumumbas parti utm&#228;rkte sig genom att tala om en nationell identitet och rikta sig till alla kongoleser.</p><p>De v&#228;xande protesterna fick belgarna att inse att de h&#246;ll p&#229; att tappa kontrollen &#8211; i somliga provinser hade befolkningen redan slutat betala skatt och erk&#228;nde nu bara sina lokala partier hellre &#228;n den koloniala administrationen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OFLp!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffd21a71b-7c1a-4193-b17d-419468e47c66_760x507.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Lumumba i Bryssel 1960.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I januari 1960 bj&#246;d Belgien in ledarna f&#246;r tretton av de nya kongolesiska partierna till ett historiskt m&#246;te i Bryssel. Lumumba, som ett par dagar tidigare &#229;terigen hade f&#228;ngslats &#8211; denna g&#229;ng anklagad f&#246;r uppvigling &#8211; sl&#228;pptes och till&#228;ts delta i sammankomsten, d&#229; han hade f&#246;r stort inflytande f&#246;r att exkluderas. Detta var f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen Belgien involverade kongoleser i beslutsfattandet.</p><p>Belgarna hoppades kunna &#246;vertyga kongoleserna om en l&#229;ngsam &#246;verg&#229;ng till sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet. Tv&#228;rtom m&#246;ttes de av en enad front av kongolesiska ledare som kr&#228;vde sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet redan i juni samma &#229;r.</p><p>Kolonialmakten gick med p&#229; kravet. Val stundade i maj och planen var att st&#246;dja Belgienv&#228;nliga mittenpartier och p&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt beh&#229;lla sitt inflytande.</p><p>Men genom Patrice Lumumbas f&#246;rm&#229;ga att trollbinda publiken med sina sprakande tal blev MNC valets st&#246;rsta parti, dock utan egen majoritet. En politisk &#246;verenskommelse gjorde att <strong>Joseph Kasavubu</strong> fr&#229;n partiet <em>Abako</em> blev president och Lumumba premi&#228;rminister. Det nya landet fick namnet <strong>Republiken Kongo</strong>.</p><h3>En tumultartad nationaldag</h3><p>B&#229;de belgiska och kongolesiska dignit&#228;rer n&#228;rvarade p&#229; sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighetsceremonin den 30 juni, som markerade slutet p&#229; kolonialiseringen och sjuttiofem &#229;r av f&#246;rtryck, segregation, ekonomisk exploatering och massmord. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zeHx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa20278d4-3cee-4fcf-b3fb-fc32738c32d0_987x768.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zeHx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa20278d4-3cee-4fcf-b3fb-fc32738c32d0_987x768.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zeHx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa20278d4-3cee-4fcf-b3fb-fc32738c32d0_987x768.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zeHx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa20278d4-3cee-4fcf-b3fb-fc32738c32d0_987x768.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zeHx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa20278d4-3cee-4fcf-b3fb-fc32738c32d0_987x768.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Joseph Kasavubu, Patrice Lumumba och kung Baudouin av Belgien i samband med Kongos sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet.</figcaption></figure></div><p>&#196;ven kung <strong>Baudouin av Belgien </strong>deltog. I ett tal gratulerade Baudouin Kongo f&#246;r att ha n&#229;tt frihet med hj&#228;lp av belgisk &#8221;civilisering&#8221;. Kl&#228;dd i en sn&#246;vit uniform prydd med diverse hedersmedaljer beskrev han Kongos sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet som kulmen p&#229; det arbete hans anfader <strong>Leopold II i</strong>nlett i slutet av 1800-talet &#8211; samme Leopold II som bar ansvaret f&#246;r upp till tio miljoner kongolesers d&#246;d. Baudouin kallade &#228;ven Leopold II f&#246;r ett geni och r&#229;dde kongoleserna att inte ers&#228;tta systemen som Belgien inr&#228;ttat innan de var s&#228;kra p&#229; att de kunde styra b&#228;ttre sj&#228;lva.</p><p>Patrice Lumumba hade inget tal schemalagt. Men medan han lyssnade p&#229; Baudouins ord best&#228;mde han sig f&#246;r att kringg&#229; dagordningen. I slutet av ceremonin st&#228;llde han sig upp och bem&#246;tte Baudouins historierevision. I en l&#229;ng och metodisk genomg&#229;ng belyste han Belgiens m&#229;nga brott: den systematiska rasismen, den giriga utsugningen, den inhumana behandlingen av Kongos inv&#229;nare.</p><div id="youtube2-Xh9c62PRwqo" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;Xh9c62PRwqo&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:&quot;2s&quot;,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/Xh9c62PRwqo?start=2s&amp;rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>Lumumbas tal rev ner appl&#229;der fr&#229;n de kongolesiska &#229;h&#246;rarna men gjorde belgarna vansinniga och sargade hans relationer med den f&#246;re detta kolonialmakten. I belgisk press utm&#229;lades han som en v&#229;ldsam fanatiker.</p><h3>Utmaningarna hopar sig</h3><p>Kongo befann sig i en diplomatisk kris men landet var &#228;ntligen fritt. Dessv&#228;rre h&#228;grade en serie monumentala pr&#246;vningar vid horisonten. De m&#229;nga &#229;ren av s&#228;rbehandling och f&#246;rtryck gjorde att Kongo helt saknade utbildade l&#228;kare och gymnasiel&#228;rare. 1960 fanns det endast trettio kongoleser med universitetsutbildning &#8211; detta i ett land n&#228;stan lika stort som hela V&#228;steuropa. Det huvudsakliga omr&#229;det de till&#229;tits avancera inom var kyrkan och vid sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigheten hade omkring femhundra kongolesiska pr&#228;ster utbildats.</p><p>Dessutom hade Belgien genomf&#246;rt en slags ekonomisk kupp. Efter det politiska m&#246;tet i januari 1960 som fastslog att landet skulle bli sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigt, h&#246;lls en ny konferens f&#246;r att reda ut en rad ekonomiska fr&#229;gor. Men eftersom sammantr&#228;det inf&#246;ll i april och maj, n&#228;r Kongos ledare var upptagna med valkampanjen, representerades deras intressen av mindre kvalificerade delegater.</p><p>Nyutexaminerade kongolesiska universitetsstudenter st&#228;lldes mot erfarna belgiska politiker som under f&#246;rhandlingarna la beslag p&#229; viktiga ekonomiska tillg&#229;ngar genom att privatisera bolag som den belgiska staten tidigare &#228;gt delar av, samtidigt som skulderna landet samlat p&#229; sig togs &#246;ver av den nya kongolesiska staten.</p><p>Av f&#246;rklarliga sk&#228;l saknade Kongos nya ledarskikt erfarenhet av att styra en nation. M&#229;nga politiker s&#229;g &#228;ntligen sin chans att &#229;tnjuta den privilegierade st&#228;llning som dittills varit f&#246;rbeh&#229;llen europeiska kolonisat&#246;rer, och parlamentets f&#246;rsta beslut var att r&#246;sta igenom en h&#246;jning av ledam&#246;ternas &#229;rliga ers&#228;ttning fr&#229;n hundratusen franc till en halv miljon. Lumumba, varse om vad en s&#229;dan l&#246;ne&#246;kning skulle signalera, var en av f&#229; att protestera.</p><h3>Kongokrisen blir ett faktum</h3><p>Ett annat problem var bristen p&#229; h&#246;gkvalificerade kongoleser, som gjorde att m&#229;nga tunga tj&#228;nster fortsatte att innehas av vita europ&#233;er. <strong>Force Publique</strong>, den gamla koloniala arm&#233;n som nu bestod av tjugotusen man, var inget undantag. Belgaren <strong>&#201;mile Janssens </strong>var fortfarande general och kommenderade allts&#229; en svart arm&#233;. </p><p>Den 4 juli, inte ens en vecka efter sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigheten, v&#228;grade soldater i L&#233;opoldville att lyda order och kr&#228;vde l&#246;nef&#246;rh&#246;jning. Dagen efter kallade Janssens soldaterna till arm&#233;h&#246;gkvarteret, d&#228;r han tillk&#228;nnagav att Kongos nyvunna frihet inte skulle inneb&#228;ra n&#229;gra skillnader f&#246;r dem: de skulle inte avancera och fortfarande lyda under en grupp vita officerare. Med en krita skrev han <em>&#8221;f&#246;re sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet = efter sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet&#8221;</em> p&#229; svarta tavlan.</p><p>Force Publiques kongolesiska soldater blev rasande. Samma natt, i en spontan revolt, gjorde flera av dem myteri.</p><p>Lumumba anklagade Belgien f&#246;r uppvigling och sparkade Janssens. I ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att blidka soldaterna d&#246;pte han om arm&#233;n till <strong>Arm&#233;e Nationale Congolaise</strong>, befordrade alla kongolesiska soldater och bytte ut europeiska officerare mot kongolesiska.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Trots Lumumbas v&#228;djan fortsatte soldaternas revolt. M&#229;nga kongoleser, inte bara de i arm&#233;n, f&#246;rv&#228;ntade sig mer eller mindre omedelbara samh&#228;llsf&#246;rb&#228;ttringar och tyckte att reformtakten var alldeles f&#246;r l&#229;ngsam. Att politikerna stoltserade med fullproppade pl&#229;nb&#246;cker och nya bilar gjorde bara saken v&#228;rre. </p><p>Nu b&#246;rjade ilskan &#228;ven riktas mot europeiska civila. Arm&#233;n splittrades i olika fraktioner, vissa lojala endast mot sig sj&#228;lva, andra mot ett visst parti eller en s&#228;rskild folkgrupp. Plundring, mord och v&#229;ldt&#228;kter avl&#246;ste varandra medan tusentals vita flydde landet.</p><p>Den 10 juli skickade Belgien in sin milit&#228;r, officiellt f&#246;r att skydda sin befolkning, men de tog ocks&#229; kontroll &#246;ver nyckelpositioner i landet, vilket Lumumba s&#229;g som en krigsf&#246;rklaring.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IvsL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe2627ff4-078a-4252-8a6d-d8b29e8d4989_1811x1808.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Mo&#239;se Tshombe, sj&#228;lvutn&#228;mnd ledare f&#246;r utbrytarstaten Katanga, i Toulouse. Foto: Andr&#233; Cros.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Dagen d&#228;rp&#229; intensifierades kaoset ytterligare. <strong>Mo&#239;se Tshombe</strong>, som styrde &#246;ver <strong>Katanga</strong> &#8211; en provins vars koppargruvor stod f&#246;r en tredjedel av Kongos int&#228;kter &#8211; utropade regionen till en sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndig stat. I ryggen hade han b&#229;de belgiska milit&#228;ra r&#229;dgivare och gruvf&#246;retag, d&#228;ribland <em>Union Mini&#232;re du Haut-Katanga</em> (<strong>UMHK</strong>), v&#228;rldens tredje st&#246;rsta kopparproducent. F&#246;retaget slutade betala skatt till Kongo, uppmanade Belgien att formellt erk&#228;nna Katanga och hj&#228;lpte till att finansiera Tshombes utgifter.</p><p>Mindre &#228;n tv&#229; veckor efter Kongos frig&#246;relse h&#246;ll landet p&#229; att kollapsa. Hur Lumumba valde att hantera den explosiva situationen skulle bli avg&#246;rande f&#246;r nationens framtid. Och hans eget liv.</p><p>Lumumba satsade sina kort p&#229; <strong>FN</strong>, som under ledning av <strong>Dag Hammarskj&#246;ld</strong> s&#229;g det som ett tillf&#228;lle att demonstrera organisationens fredsbevarande potential. Inom ett par dagar fl&#246;gs FN-styrkor in f&#246;r att &#229;terst&#228;lla lag och ordning.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic" width="980" height="550" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:550,&quot;width&quot;:980,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:77154,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192083067?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PBvH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3f316d8-c388-4f25-bde5-3a3fe23d7ba1_980x550.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Lumumba kr&#228;vde att FN ocks&#229; skulle kasta ut de belgiska soldater som kopplat greppet om regioner runtom i landet. Den 14 juli 1960 antog FN en resolution som beg&#228;rde Belgiens tillbakadragande.</p><p>Lumumba fortsatte att pressa FN, m&#246;jligen ovetande om exakt hur reglerat dess mandat var, och ombad organisationen att hj&#228;lpa Kongo &#229;terta utbrytarstaten Katanga. N&#228;r FN avb&#246;jde, med h&#228;nvisning till att de inte hade r&#228;tt att p&#229;verka Kongos inrikespolitik, anklagade Lumumba organisationen f&#246;r att f&#246;retr&#228;da Belgiens intressen. &#196;ven <strong>USA</strong> tackade nej till en milit&#228;r intervention.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic" width="741" height="800" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:800,&quot;width&quot;:741,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:101937,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192083067?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ibE1!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb2a7212b-9b91-4a75-a099-b29f12d3a65a_741x800.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Lumumba anl&#228;nder till New York den 24 juli 1960.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Parallellt utropade <strong>Kasai</strong>, Kongos mest diamantrika provins, sin sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet den 9 augusti 1960. I ren desperation v&#228;nde sig Lumumba till <strong>Sovjetunionen</strong> f&#246;r assistans, som svarade med att tillhandah&#229;lla milit&#228;ra fordon.</p><p>Med stor m&#246;da kunde den kongolesiska arm&#233;n sl&#229; ner revolten i Kasai. Men priset blev h&#246;gt. 250 000 m&#228;nniskor drevs p&#229; flykt och de internationella rapporterna om att den kongolesiska arm&#233;n massakrerat civila var f&#246;r&#246;dande f&#246;r anseendet.</p><p>Ett annat problem var att Lumumba, genom att bjuda in Sovjet, bidrog till att g&#246;ra Kongo till ett av kalla krigets huvudarenor. F&#246;rutom den gamla fienden Belgien hade han nu gjort sig ov&#228;n med b&#229;de USA, FN och medlemmar av sin egen regering, som argumenterade f&#246;r en mer &#229;terh&#229;llsam retorik och politik. I v&#228;st v&#228;xte r&#228;dslan f&#246;r att en kommuniststat h&#246;ll p&#229; att bildas i hj&#228;rtat av Afrika och under sommaren varnade <strong>CIA</strong>-chefen <strong>Allen Dulles</strong> f&#246;r att Lumumba var en ny <strong>Fidel Castro</strong> &#8221;eller v&#228;rre&#8221;.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/patrice-lumumba-och-kongos-saboterade?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/patrice-lumumba-och-kongos-saboterade?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Kv&#228;llen den 5 september 1960 h&#246;rdes president Joseph Kasavubus r&#246;st i ett radioframtr&#228;dande. P&#229; sitt tafatta man&#233;r l&#228;ste han upp ett f&#246;rskrivet meddelande som avsl&#246;jade att Lumumba med omedelbar verkan hade avskedats. B&#229;de massakrerna i Kasai, som i v&#228;sterl&#228;ndsk press beskrevs som folkmord, och kommunistanklagelserna skapade ett gyllene tillf&#228;lle att g&#246;ra sig av med den allt mer ober&#228;knelige ledaren.</p><p>Men n&#229;gra timmar senare var det Lumumbas v&#228;lbekanta st&#228;mma som ekade ur radioapparaterna, med budskapet att det var han som i sj&#228;lva verket hade sparkat presidenten. Den politiska f&#246;rvirringen var total.</p><p>I v&#228;st s&#229;g man Lumumba som eskalerande irrationell och temperamentsfull. P&#229; varsitt h&#229;ll b&#246;rjade CIA och Belgien <a href="https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/2025/0318/157-10005-10297.pdf">planera f&#246;r hans permanenta &#8221;radering&#8221;</a>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!scjA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ac3bd0e-d9bb-468d-931f-d551e179111f_1456x691.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!scjA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ac3bd0e-d9bb-468d-931f-d551e179111f_1456x691.heic 424w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!scjA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ac3bd0e-d9bb-468d-931f-d551e179111f_1456x691.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!scjA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ac3bd0e-d9bb-468d-931f-d551e179111f_1456x691.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!scjA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ac3bd0e-d9bb-468d-931f-d551e179111f_1456x691.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!scjA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ac3bd0e-d9bb-468d-931f-d551e179111f_1456x691.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Joseph Mobutu strax efter milit&#228;rkuppen 1960.</figcaption></figure></div><p>N&#228;r l&#228;get inte s&#229;g ut att kunna bli mer komplicerat utannonserade<strong> Joseph-D&#233;sir&#233; Mobutu </strong>att han tempor&#228;rt hade &#8221;neutraliserat&#8221; de rivaliserande Joseph Kasavubu och Patrice Lumumba. </p><p>Mobutu hade bakgrund inom Force Publique och som journalist, var tidigt med i MNC och hade fungerat som Lumumbas personlige assistent och en av hans n&#228;rmaste r&#229;dgivare. Under sommarens arm&#233;myteri hade han befordrats till &#246;verste och arm&#233;stabschef. </p><p>Vad Lumumba inte visste, eller inte ville tro p&#229;, var ryktena om att Mobutu ett par &#229;r tidigare hade rekryterats som informat&#246;r &#229;t de amerikanska och belgiska underr&#228;ttelsetj&#228;nsterna.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic" width="976" height="549" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:549,&quot;width&quot;:976,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:90909,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192083067?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ynbd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc1a6da18-c28c-4175-9624-0bb6e9d3d1fb_976x549.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Patrice Lumumba med Joseph Mobutu i bakgrunden.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Nu tog han i praktiken &#246;ver Kongo i en milit&#228;rkupp. Revolten underl&#228;ttades av <strong>CIA</strong> som bland annat sk&#246;t till vapen och de pengar Mobutu beh&#246;vde f&#246;r att s&#228;kerst&#228;lla arm&#233;ns lojalitet. Resultatet blev en interimsregering best&#229;ende av kongoleser som nyutexaminerats fr&#229;n universitetet. Joseph Kasavubu fick sitta kvar som president och de sovjetiska r&#229;dgivare som Lumumba tagit hj&#228;lp av kastades ut ur landet.</p><p>Sj&#228;lv sattes Lumumba i husarrest. En grupp FN-soldater hindrade hans fiender fr&#229;n att ta sig in, medan Mobutus soldater omringade hemmet och hejdade honom fr&#229;n att l&#228;mna bostaden. </p><p>Trots husarresten fortsatte Lumumba att insistera p&#229; att han fortfarande var premi&#228;rminister. Kongo var nu splittrat i fyra delar: Kasavubus och Mobutus regering i v&#228;st, med st&#246;d av v&#228;stv&#228;rlden, Lumumbas anh&#228;ngare i &#246;st, med st&#246;d av Sovjet, samt de tv&#229; ekonomiskt viktiga utbrytarstaterna Katanga och Sydkasai i s&#246;der, b&#229;da med st&#246;d av belgiska bolag.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic" width="1200" height="800" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/bd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:800,&quot;width&quot;:1200,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:153738,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/192083067?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GKaS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd5a5e04-44dc-4470-a121-52cfb439011d_1200x800.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">CIA-kemisten Sidney Gottlieb, del av en avbl&#229;st amerikansk komplott att m&#246;rda Lumumba. </figcaption></figure></div><p>De amerikanska planerna p&#229; att oskadligg&#246;ra Lumumba fortskred i r&#228;dsla f&#246;r att han n&#228;r som helst skulle kunna g&#246;ra politisk comeback. I oktober landade CIA-kemisten <strong>Sidney Gottlieb</strong> i Kongo. Det var samme man som nyligen varit inblandad i planerna p&#229; att l&#246;nnm&#246;rda Fidel Castro och som p&#229; 1950-talet hade lett forskningsprogrammet <strong>MK-Ultra</strong>, som med hj&#228;lp av olagliga metoder f&#246;rs&#246;kte uppn&#229; beteendemodifikation, eller hj&#228;rnkontroll. Med sig hade han ett handbagage som inneh&#246;ll ett d&#246;dligt gift t&#228;nkt att appliceras i Lumumbas tandkr&#228;m eller mat.</p><p>M&#229;naden efter <a href="https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10103-10291.pdf">anl&#228;nde en man med kodnamnet QJ/WIN </a>till Kongo. Han hade rekryterats i Europa f&#246;r att utf&#246;ra mordet och beskrevs som en skrupelfri person med ett kriminellt f&#246;rflutet.</p><p>Men komplotten f&#246;ll samman n&#228;r <strong>Larry Devlin</strong>, den lokala chefen f&#246;r CIA:s operationer i Kongo, motsatte sig tillv&#228;gag&#229;ngss&#228;ttet. Han s&#229;g inte hur de skulle kunna infiltrera Lumumbas beskydd och ans&#229;g att CIA redan var p&#229; god v&#228;g att g&#246;ra sig av med Lumumba p&#229; andra s&#228;tt. Giftet dumpades i Kongofloden.</p><p>Skuggoperationen m&#229; ha avbl&#229;sts, men USA fortsatte att motarbeta Lumumba i de politiska finrummen. I flera veckor hade det p&#229; FN-kontoret i New York debatterats vilken av Kongos delegationer som skulle f&#229; representera landet &#8211; Lumumbas eller Kasavubus? Den 24 november, efter p&#229;tryckningar fr&#229;n USA, r&#246;stade FN:s generalf&#246;rsamling f&#246;r att bjuda in Kasavubus s&#228;ndebud, ett internationellt erk&#228;nnande av hans legitimitet.</p><h3>En riskabel flykt</h3><p>Lumumba ins&#229;g nu att hoppet var ute f&#246;r att en FN-medling skulle &#229;terst&#228;lla hans politiska makt. En regnig novemberkv&#228;ll flydde han sin husarrest genom att g&#246;mma sig i en av de bilar som k&#246;rde hem servicepersonalen efter dagens pass.</p><p>M&#229;let var att ta sig till <strong>Stanleyville</strong> i &#246;st d&#228;r hans politiska st&#246;d var som st&#246;rst. D&#228;rifr&#229;n hoppades han kunna &#229;terta kontrollen genom en konkurrerande regering. Men hans flykt blev omtalad och snarare &#228;n att skynda till Stanleyville valde hans karavan, som inkluderade hans familj och n&#228;rmaste allierade, att k&#246;ra genom flera byar och samh&#228;llen d&#228;r de m&#246;ttes av jubilerande folkmassor. Beslutet fick han dyrt betala.</p><p>Strax f&#246;re midnatt den 1 december, ungef&#228;r halvv&#228;gs till Stanleyville, n&#229;dde gruppen Sankurufloden. En bro saknades och de tvingades korsa det breda vattendraget i en liten b&#229;t. Lumumba ingick i den f&#246;rsta gruppen att ta sig &#246;ver medan hans fru och yngste son ingick i den som v&#228;ntade kvar. Framme p&#229; andra sidan hoppade Lumumba p&#229; b&#229;ten igen f&#246;r att &#229;ka tillbaka och h&#228;mta sin familj. Men under tiden som g&#229;tt hade Mobutus soldater hunnit ifatt dem. De lurade vid flodbanken.</p><p>Patrice Lumumba greps, misshandlades och transporterades till arm&#233;f&#228;ngelset i <strong>Thysville</strong>, strax s&#246;der om L&#233;opoldville, medan n&#228;rvarande FN-soldater, under order om att inte ingripa, stod och tittade p&#229;. P&#229; v&#228;gen dit bevittnade flera journalister hur den kongolesiska arm&#233;n sparkade och f&#246;rnedrade Lumumba framf&#246;r en ober&#246;rd Joseph-D&#233;sir&#233; Mobutu. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic" width="1456" height="976" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ADVC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7a8476c3-75e7-4d7d-8b21-81f10d5037fb_1600x1072.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Lumumba tillf&#229;ngatagen.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Scenerna skadade FN:s anseende &#8211; hur kunde organisationen som hade en stor interventionsstyrka p&#229; plats, en styrka som dessutom lyckats skydda belgiska civila, nu st&#229; handfallen medan den r&#228;ttm&#228;tige premi&#228;rministern misshandlades framf&#246;r omv&#228;rldens &#246;gon?</p><p>Inte ens efter f&#228;ngslandet av Lumumba kunde hans motst&#229;ndare andas ut. En allierad till honom, politikern <strong>Antoine Gizenga</strong>, gick vidare med Lumumbas plan att i Stanleyville forma en regering som kunde utmana Joseph Kasavubus. F&#246;r m&#229;nga inv&#229;nare var Lumumba sinnebilden av Kongos frihet och trots att han var inburad fortsatte regeringen i Stanleyville att vinna st&#246;d.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic" width="1280" height="1219" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ah2t!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf4f3278-90b5-4fc4-b5fa-e65e0b5c5c7f_1280x1219.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar det splittrade Kongo &#229;r 1961.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Under tiden uth&#228;rdade Lumumba hemska f&#246;rh&#229;llanden i Thysville. Han h&#246;lls f&#229;ngen i en fuktig cell, f&#246;rv&#228;grades skor och att byta kl&#228;der och serverades h&#228;lsov&#229;dlig mat. &#196;nd&#229; lyckades han ut&#246;va sitt inflytande &#246;ver soldaterna i f&#228;ngelset. I januari 1961 revolterade flera av dem och Kasavubu och Mobutu tvingades ingripa personligen. De lyckades &#229;terst&#228;lla ordningen endast genom att lova soldaterna mer pengar.</p><h3>Ett d&#246;dligt beslut</h3><p>Incidenten oroade amerikanska och belgiska politiker, som fruktade att Lumumba hade potentialen att genomf&#246;ra en statskupp om han frisl&#228;pptes. Kasavubu och Mobutu ville g&#246;ra sig av med Lumumba men var r&#228;dda f&#246;r att en r&#228;tteg&#229;ng eller avr&#228;ttning utf&#246;rd av dem sj&#228;lva skulle v&#228;nda befolkningen mot deras unga regering. </p><p>De tog beslutet att &#246;verl&#228;mna Lumumba till utbrytarstaten Katanga. Tv&#229; andra politiska f&#229;ngar gick samma &#246;de till m&#246;tes: den f&#246;re detta sport- och ungdomsministern <strong>Maurice Mpolo</strong> och senatens tidigare vicepresident <strong>Joseph Okito</strong>. B&#229;da var k&#228;nda som l&#229;ngvariga Lumumba-anh&#228;ngare.</p><p>Den 17 januari fl&#246;gs Lumumba, Mpolo och Okito till <strong>&#201;lisabethville</strong>, Katangas huvudstad. Under den sex timmar l&#229;nga flygningen misshandlades f&#229;ngarna av soldaterna som eskorterade dem. Efter ett tag l&#229;ste piloterna d&#246;rren till cockpit i ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att undslippa det traumatiserande ljudet av misshandeln och av r&#228;dsla f&#246;r de okontrollerbara soldaterna.</p><p>V&#228;l framme f&#246;rdes Lumumba, Okito och Mpolo till ett tomt hus inte l&#229;ngt fr&#229;n flygplatsen, medan slagen &#8211; knytn&#228;var, sparkar, gev&#228;rskolvar &#8211; fortsatte hagla. De sl&#228;pades in i badrummet d&#228;r de utsattes f&#246;r regelr&#228;tt tortyr. &#196;ven n&#229;gra av Katangas ministrar och statens sj&#228;lvutn&#228;mnde president, Mo&#239;se Tshombe, deltog i v&#229;ldet.</p><p>Senare samma kv&#228;ll, efter m&#246;rkrets inbrott, k&#246;rdes f&#229;ngarna till en avl&#228;gsen skogsgl&#228;nta. Milit&#228;rfordonens framlyktor lyste upp redan gr&#228;vda gravar. En efter en radades de tre m&#228;nnen upp mot ett tr&#228;d och avr&#228;ttades. Med all hast flydde de inblandade mordplatsen. Lumumba var bara 35 &#229;r gammal.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZPRY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2484631f-07da-4e62-912d-34ee94f321d2_316x489.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZPRY!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2484631f-07da-4e62-912d-34ee94f321d2_316x489.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZPRY!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2484631f-07da-4e62-912d-34ee94f321d2_316x489.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZPRY!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2484631f-07da-4e62-912d-34ee94f321d2_316x489.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZPRY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2484631f-07da-4e62-912d-34ee94f321d2_316x489.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZPRY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2484631f-07da-4e62-912d-34ee94f321d2_316x489.heic" width="316" height="489" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ludo De Wittes monumentala <em>De moord op Patrice Lumumba </em>som efter fyra decennier tvingade Belgien att erk&#228;nna sin inblandning. </figcaption></figure></div><p>I &#246;ver fyrtio &#229;r vidh&#246;ll Belgien att landet inte varit inblandat i mordet p&#229; Lumumba. Men i den belgiske historikern och journalisten <strong>Ludo De Wittes</strong> bok <em>De moord op Patrice Lumumba </em>fr&#229;n &#229;r 1999 presenterades nya bevismaterial. Bland annat hj&#228;lpte belgiska r&#229;dgivare till att utarbeta planen att &#246;verl&#228;mna Lumumba till Katanga och belgiska officerare n&#228;rvarade b&#229;de under misshandeln och tortyren samt hade bef&#228;l &#246;ver d&#246;dspatrullen.</p><h3>Undanr&#246;jda sp&#229;r</h3><p>Lokalbor hade h&#246;rt skottlossningen och uppt&#228;ckte gravarna, s&#229; slarvigt igenfyllda att en arm stack upp ur marken. Dagen efter morden var belgare &#229;terigen p&#229; plats n&#228;r liken gr&#228;vdes upp. De lindades in i dukar, lastades ombord p&#229; ett fordon, transporterades l&#229;ngt d&#228;rifr&#229;n och dumpades i djupare gropar. </p><p>Men de inblandades nervositet fick dem att n&#229;gra dagar senare gr&#228;va upp de ruttnande kropparna igen. Den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen styckades de med en b&#229;gfil innan kroppsdelarna l&#246;stes upp i tunnor med svavelsyra. Benen och t&#228;nderna maldes ner och spreds f&#246;r vinden. Lumumbas anh&#228;ngare skulle inte ha n&#229;gon fysisk gravplats att vallf&#228;rda till.</p><p>Inget uttalande &#228;gde rum f&#246;rr&#228;n den 10 februari, omkring tre veckor efter avr&#228;ttningarna. Den officiella versionen av h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet var att Lumumba, Okito och Mpolo lyckats fly f&#229;ngenskapen. Hittel&#246;ner utlovades. Tre dagar senare meddelade Katangas inrikesminister att &#8221;rymlingarnas&#8221; kroppar hade p&#229;tr&#228;ffats &#8211; m&#228;nnen p&#229;stods ha uppt&#228;ckts av lokala bybor som sedan m&#246;rdade dem. Ministern v&#228;grade avsl&#246;ja detaljer om h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet eller var kropparna l&#229;g begravda, men visade upp d&#246;dsfallsintyg signerade av en belgisk l&#228;kare.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic" width="960" height="627" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HhMc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F688ef8e3-4d9f-4bcd-b5db-7deb5281646e_960x627.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Demonstranter i Maribor, Jugoslavien, i januari 1961.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Runtom i v&#228;rlden &#8211; London, New York, Moskva, Warszawa, Amsterdam, Dakar, New Delhi &#8211; br&#246;t protester ut mot mordet p&#229; Lumumba. I Belgrad samlades trettiotusen unga jugoslaver utanf&#246;r Belgiens ambassad, som till slut stormades och vandaliserades. I L&#233;opoldville ledde Lumumbas unga &#228;nka <strong>Pauline</strong> en demonstration utanf&#246;r FN:s kontor. Hennes krav p&#229; att &#229;terf&#229; Lumumbas kropp f&#246;r en ordentlig begravning gick, av f&#246;rklarliga sk&#228;l, inte att tillm&#246;tesg&#229;.</p><p>Efter mordet p&#229; Lumumba fortsatte maktkampen i Kongo mellan olika fraktioner, blodigare och mer o&#246;versk&#229;dlig f&#246;r varje &#229;r. 1965 tog Joseph-D&#233;sir&#233; Mobutu slutligen &#246;ver i en ny milit&#228;rkupp, den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen h&#246;gst ovillig att dela makten med n&#229;gon. L&#228;s mer om hans trettio&#229;riga v&#228;lde och hur det h&#228;nger ihop med den nuvarande humanit&#228;ra katastrofen i Kongo <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/den-humanitara-krisen-i-demokratiska">h&#228;r</a>.</p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;c1249c17-f469-4ec6-9713-e8a823b5ad89&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Den humanit&#228;ra krisen i de &#246;stra delarna av Demokratiska republiken Kongo (DRK) har f&#246;rv&#228;rrats p&#229; nytt under 2025. Rebellgruppen M23, finansierad av Rwanda, har intagit miljonstaden Goma nu i dagarna och bara under januari har 400 000 m&#228;nniskor tvingats p&#229; &#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;sm&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Den humanit&#228;ra krisen i Demokratiska republiken Kongo&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-29T16:04:50.057Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabaea192-e816-48ad-83d5-39749195b015_2000x1334.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/den-humanitara-krisen-i-demokratiska&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:156013123,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:2,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h3>En segdragen urs&#228;kt</h3><p>Trots v&#228;sterl&#228;ndska f&#246;rs&#246;k att utm&#229;la Lumumba som en vansinnig extremist som enbart hade sig sj&#228;lv att skylla, har han i efterhand blivit en martyr och en global symbol f&#246;r antiimperialism, sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet och panafrikanism.</p><p>Strax efter utgivningen av Ludo De Wittes bok inledde Belgien en officiell utredning. 2002 presenterades resultatet. Belgien ans&#229;g sig inte ha en direkt koppling till Lumumbas mord men medgav att landet hade ett &#8221;moraliskt ansvar&#8221; d&#229; man inte hade f&#246;rhindrat det. Utrikesministern <strong>Louis Miche</strong>l bad formellt om urs&#228;kt f&#246;r Belgiens roll i mordet p&#229; Lumumba.</p><p>Den 30 juni 2020, inf&#246;r sextio&#229;rsjubileet av Kongos sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet och under den sommarens<strong> Black Lives Matter</strong>-protester, uttryckte <strong>kung Philippe av Belgien</strong> sin <em>&#8220;djupaste &#229;nger&#8221; </em>f&#246;r de <em>&#8221;f&#246;rflutna of&#246;rr&#228;tter&#8221; </em>och de <em>&#8221;sm&#228;rtsamma episoder&#8221;</em> som Belgien &#229;samkat landet under kolonialiseringen. </p><p>Det var f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen en belgisk monark erk&#228;nde n&#229;gon form av skuld, men kritiker var snabba med att p&#229;peka att &#229;nger inte &#228;r detsamma som en urs&#228;kt. <strong>Adam Hochschild</strong>, f&#246;rfattare till <em>Kung Leopolds v&#229;lnad</em>, boken som nyt&#228;nde intresset f&#246;r Belgiens brott i Afrika, har s&#228;llat sig till dem som anser att landet b&#246;r betala skadest&#229;nd till Kongo.</p><p>Tv&#229; &#229;r senare, sommaren 2022, &#229;terl&#228;mnade Belgien en guldtand som tillh&#246;rt Lumumba. Hans familj tog emot den under en liten ceremoni i Bryssel. </p><p>Reliken var det enda som &#229;terstod av den m&#246;rdade Lumumba och tanden hade l&#228;nge beh&#229;llits som en slags trof&#233; av<strong> Gerard Soete</strong>, en belgisk poliskommission&#228;r som deltog i styckningen av Lumumbas kropp. 2016 beslagtog den belgiska staten tanden sedan Soetes dotter visat upp den i samband med en tidningsintervju.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XE79!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F882acd72-17e4-4604-bf85-c11cfdaacf34_1536x1888.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XE79!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F882acd72-17e4-4604-bf85-c11cfdaacf34_1536x1888.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XE79!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F882acd72-17e4-4604-bf85-c11cfdaacf34_1536x1888.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XE79!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F882acd72-17e4-4604-bf85-c11cfdaacf34_1536x1888.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XE79!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F882acd72-17e4-4604-bf85-c11cfdaacf34_1536x1888.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Lumumbas guldtand.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Under ceremonin bad den belgiska premi&#228;rministern <strong>Alexander De Croo </strong><a href="https://www.belganewsagency.eu/lumumbas-remains-returned-belgian-prime-minister-de-croo-apologises">om urs&#228;kt </a>f&#246;r landets inblandning i mordet p&#229; Lumumba:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;F&#246;r &#246;verf&#246;ringen av Patrice Emery Lumumba till Katanga fick de d&#229;varande kongolesiska myndigheterna hj&#228;lp av belgiska diplomater, tj&#228;nstem&#228;n och milit&#228;rer.</em></p><p><em>Den parlamentariska unders&#246;kningskommissionen drog d&#228;rf&#246;r slutsatsen att den belgiska regeringen visade en tydlig brist p&#229; omsorg om Patrice Lumumbas fysiska integritet och att den, efter hans mord, medvetet spred osanningar om omst&#228;ndigheterna kring hans d&#246;d.</em></p><p><em>Flera ministrar i den d&#229;varande belgiska regeringen b&#228;r d&#228;rf&#246;r ett moraliskt ansvar f&#246;r de omst&#228;ndigheter som ledde till detta mord.</em></p><p><em>Detta &#228;r en sm&#228;rtsam och obehaglig sanning. Men den m&#229;ste s&#228;gas.</em></p><p><em>Belgiska ministrar, diplomater, tj&#228;nstem&#228;n eller milit&#228;rer kan ha saknat avsikt att l&#229;ta m&#246;rda Patrice Lumumba &#8211; det finns inga bevis som styrker det. Men de borde ha f&#246;rst&#229;tt att hans &#246;verf&#246;ring till Katanga utsatte hans liv f&#246;r fara.</em></p><p><em>De borde ha varnat. De borde ha v&#228;grat all medverkan till &#246;verf&#246;ringen av Patrice Lumumba till den plats d&#228;r han avr&#228;ttades.</em></p><p><em>De valde att inte se. De valde att inte agera.</em></p><p><em>En man m&#246;rdades f&#246;r sina politiska &#246;vertygelser, sina ord, sina ideal.</em></p><p><em>Som demokrat finner jag detta of&#246;rsvarligt.<br>Som liberal finner jag det oacceptabelt.<br>Och som m&#228;nniska finner jag det avskyv&#228;rt.</em></p><p><em>Jag vill ocks&#229; framf&#246;ra en varm hyllning till de tv&#229; andra m&#228;n som avr&#228;ttades samtidigt som Patrice Emery Lumumba: Maurice Mpolo och Joseph Okito.</em></p><p><em>Detta moraliska ansvar hos den belgiska regeringen har erk&#228;nts, och jag bekr&#228;ftar det &#229;ter i dag, denna officiella dag d&#229; Belgien tar farv&#228;l av Patrice Emery Lumumba.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>De Croo f&#246;rd&#246;mde ocks&#229; den belgiska koloniseringen i stort:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Liksom slaveriet var den koloniala modellen i sig ett f&#246;rd&#228;rvligt system. Det var just en modell &#8211; ett system &#8211; och det kastar en skamfl&#228;ck &#246;ver v&#229;rt lands historia.</em></p><p><em>Vi m&#229;ste erk&#228;nna detta &#246;ppet och utan undanflykter om vi vill bygga en uppriktig och &#228;rlig relation med de l&#228;nder vi en g&#229;ng ockuperade: Kongo, Rwanda, Burundi.</em></p><p><em>Den belgiska regeringen f&#246;rd&#246;mer entydigt kolonialismen som ett system f&#246;r styre och en ideologi &#8211; i Kongo, i Burundi, i Rwanda och p&#229; andra h&#229;ll.</em></p><p><em>Detta system ledde till allvarliga kr&#228;nkningar av de m&#228;nskliga r&#228;ttigheterna, till m&#229;nga former av diskriminering och till en i grunden djupt problematisk syn p&#229; afrikaner hos vissa belgare.</em></p><p><em>Denna f&#246;rest&#228;llning har l&#228;mnat sp&#229;r som best&#229;r &#228;n i dag och tar sig uttryck i rasism som fortfarande alltf&#246;r ofta f&#246;rekommer i det belgiska samh&#228;llet.</em></p><p><em>Jag f&#246;rd&#246;mer denna rasism med st&#246;rsta kraft. Det &#228;r h&#246;g tid att en g&#229;ng f&#246;r alla s&#228;tta stopp f&#246;r den.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>I skrivande stund &#228;r det &#228;nnu inte k&#228;nt om och n&#228;r r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen mot &#201;tienne Davignon ska inledas. 93 &#229;r gammal &#228;r han den enda inblandade i mordet p&#229; Lumumba som &#228;nnu &#228;r vid liv.</p><div><hr></div><h3>L&#228;s mer: </h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis</em> av David Gibbs (1991)</p><p><em>The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo</em> av Thomas R. Kanza (1994)</p><p><em>Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia </em>av Jane Boulden (2001)</p><p><em>The Assassination of Lumumba</em> av Ludo De Witte (2001),</p><p><em>The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People&#8217;s History av Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja </em>(2002)</p><p><em>The State of Africa: A History of the Continent Since Independence</em> av Martin Meredith (2005)</p><p><em>Strategic Intelligence: Understanding the Hidden Side of Government </em>av Loch K. Johnson (2006)</p><p><em>Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA </em>av Tim Weiner (2007)</p><p><em>The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality</em> av Thomas Turner (2007)</p><p><em>Lumumba: Africa&#8217;s Lost Leader </em>av Leo Zeilig (2008)</p><p><em>Congo: The Epic History of a People</em> av David Van Reybrouck (2010)</p><p><em>Belgium and the Congo, 1885&#8211;1980 </em>av Guy Vanthemsche (2012)</p><p><em>The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor</em> av Martin Meredith (2014) </p><p><em>Death in the Congo: Murdering Patrice Lumumba</em> av Emmanuel Gerard och Bruce Kuklick (2015)</p><p><em>Katanga 1960&#8211;63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World </em>av Christopher Othen (2015)</p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;The C.I.A. and Lumumba&#8221; av Madeleine G. Kalb f&#246;r <em>New York Times</em> (2 augusti 1981)</p><p>Belgium must apologize for colonialism, face its racism&#8221; av Raf Casert f&#246;r <em>Associated Press</em> (11 februari 2019) </p><p>&#8221;Belgian King Expresses &#8217;Deepest Regrets&#8217; For DR Congo Colonial Abuses&#8221; p&#229; <em>BBC</em> (30 juni 2020)</p><p>&#8221;The Widow Who Led A Bare-Chested Protest Against An Assassination&#8221; av Eromo Egbejule f&#246;r <em>OZY</em> (5 juli 2020)</p><p>&#8220;Belgium returns Patrice Lumumba&#8217;s tooth to family 61 years after his murder&#8221; av Jason Burke f&#246;r <em>The Guardian</em> (20 juni 2022)</p><p>&#8220;Patrice Lumumba: Why Belgium is returning a Congolese hero&#8217;s golden tooth&#8221; av Damian Zane f&#246;r <em>BBC News</em> (20 juni 2022)</p><p>&#8220;Belgium prime minister officially apologizes for the death of Patrice Lumumba&#8221; av Jean-Pierre Stroobants f&#246;r <em>Le Monde </em>(21 juni 2022)</p><p>&#8220;Belgian court sends ex-diplomat, 93, to trial over 1961 murder of Congo leader&#8221; av Jennifer Rankin f&#246;r <em>The Guardian</em> (17 mars 2026)</p><p>&#8216;&#8221;Africa Will Write Its Own History.&#8217; Who Was Patrice Lumumba?&#8221; av Matthew Mpoke Bigg f&#246;r <em>New York Time</em>s (19 mars 2026)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Claudette Colvin (1939-2026)]]></title><description><![CDATA[Claudette Colvin var juridiskt avg&#246;rande f&#246;r att avskaffa bussegregationen &#8211; men passade inte in i r&#246;relsens ber&#228;ttelse.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/claudette-colvin-1939-2026</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/claudette-colvin-1939-2026</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 14 Jan 2026 16:16:34 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic" width="1456" height="959" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!09AR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3ca6eada-ceb7-4d89-8935-a91f6eaad5c8_1564x1030.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Claudette Colvin som ton&#229;ring, vid sidan om ett par artiklar om hennes fall.</figcaption></figure></div><p>De flesta k&#228;nner till <strong>Rosa Parks,</strong> som i december 1955 v&#228;grade ge upp sin plats till en vit man p&#229; <strong>Montgomery</strong>, <strong>Alabamas</strong> segregerade bussar. Hennes protest blev startskottet f&#246;r <em>bussbojkotten i Montgomery,</em> som i sin tur var en av den moderna amerikanska medborgarr&#228;ttsr&#246;relsens signaturaktioner.</p><p>Men nio m&#229;nader tidigare, den 2 mars 1955, gjorde den 15-&#229;riga <strong>Claudette Colvin </strong>en liknande protest. Colvin f&#246;ddes 1939, kom fr&#229;n en fattig familj och gick i en av Montgomerys segregerade svarta skolor.</p><p>En dag &#229;kte hon och tre klasskamrater hem med en av bussarna, vars tio fr&#228;msta rader var reserverade f&#246;r vita trots att de flesta kollektivresen&#228;rer var svarta. Flickorna satte sig &#228;nd&#229; i den vita delen. Under resans g&#229;ng fylldes bussen med passagerare och n&#228;r en vit kvinna tvingades st&#229; bad chauff&#246;ren de unga svarta tjejerna att flytta p&#229; sig. Hennes kompisar st&#228;llde sig upp men Colvin, som var politiskt intresserad, satt kvar.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Hon arresterades f&#246;r brott mot segregationslagarna men vidh&#246;ll sin konstitutionella r&#228;tt att f&#229; sitta var hon ville. Colvin var inte den f&#246;rsta att n&#229;gonsin protestera p&#229; det h&#228;r s&#228;ttet, men hon utm&#228;rkte sig genom att trots sin unga &#229;lder vilja ta fallet vidare. Hon tog kontakt med <strong>Fred Gray</strong>, en av Montgomerys tv&#229; svarta jurister.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic 848w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aG49!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc2275a62-f147-4864-b1d9-0d5af3654d3c_1170x584.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fred Gray arresterades sj&#228;lv under bussbojkotten.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Svarta amerikaner utsattes regelbundet f&#246;r v&#229;ld av polisen, Ku Klux Klan eller helt vanliga vita amerikaner. F&#246;r m&#229;nga aktivister var det d&#228;rf&#246;r h&#246;gprioriterat att f&#246;rs&#246;ka minimera riskerna.</p><p>Detta var innan<strong> Malcolm X</strong> hade blivit en riksk&#228;nd politisk kraft och l&#229;ngt innan the <strong>Black Panthers</strong> bildades &#8211; inom medborgarr&#228;ttsr&#246;relsen dominerade fortfarande id&#233;n att svarta hade st&#246;rst chans till juridiska framsteg om man uppfattades som proper, v&#228;ltalig och praktiserade icke-v&#229;ld.</p><p>Det var en id&#233; som aktivisterna h&#246;ll fast vid, trots att polisens batonger, vattenkanoner och sch&#228;frar, samt segregationisternas rep, facklor och bomber gjorde sitt b&#228;sta f&#246;r att motbevisa dem.</p><div class="image-gallery-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;gallery&quot;:{&quot;images&quot;:[{&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/webp&quot;,&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5147f9f6-08ab-48b3-93b2-658e747f5a05_341x276.webp&quot;},{&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/aeba476d-7106-4b10-ab13-d3a64c774355_660x373.jpeg&quot;}],&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Martin Luther King, Jr:s hus bombades i januari 1956, en m&#229;nad efter bussbojkottens inledning. Ingen &#229;talades f&#246;r brottet.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;staticGalleryImage&quot;:{&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/418b940c-47c7-45fd-b9bc-1c3d5a9074df_1456x720.png&quot;}},&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}"></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic" width="1456" height="1003" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1003,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:593187,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/184543223?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yd3d!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8dfc3e33-7936-466d-8427-a11e1b3d4a5b_2136x1472.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Gymnasieeleven Walter Gadsden attackeras av polishundar under de fredliga protesterna i Birmingham, Alabama 1963. Foto: Bill Hudson.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Av dessa anledningar var ledarna f&#246;r den lokala medborgarr&#228;ttsr&#246;relsen l&#228;nge tysta om Colvins fall. Hon var ung, hade inget jobb, kom fr&#229;n en enkel bakgrund och blev dessutom snart gravid med en man hon inte var gift med. Man var r&#228;dd f&#246;r att vit media f&#246;r enkelt skulle kunna plocka is&#228;r henne och utm&#229;la henne som moraliskt f&#246;rkastlig.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/claudette-colvin-1939-2026?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/claudette-colvin-1939-2026?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p></p><p>D&#228;rf&#246;r blev senare Rosa Parks &#8211; 42 &#229;r gammal och respekterad medlem i medborgarr&#228;ttsorganisationen <strong>NAACP</strong> &#8211; den mediala frontpersonen f&#246;r bussbojkotten. Sannolikt spelade &#228;ven kolorism in, d&#229; Colvin var m&#246;rk medan Parks var ljus och d&#228;rf&#246;r, enligt r&#229;dande syn p&#229; ras, uppfattades som mindre hotfull och mer sympatisk.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic" width="397" height="480" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:480,&quot;width&quot;:397,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:60325,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/184543223?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aWdO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F342d8378-22ff-45ec-b484-ccf4d2399d5c_397x480.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Rosa Parks, 1956. I bakgrunden syns Martin Luther King, Jr. vars arbete med bussojkotten gjorde honom k&#228;nd nationellt.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Parks spelade en enorm roll i mobiliseringen av st&#246;d f&#246;r kampen. Men rent juridiskt hade Colvin en st&#246;rre p&#229;verkan. Hon var en av fyra m&#229;ls&#228;gande i det monumentala <em>Browder v. Gayle</em>-fallet &#8211; tillsammans med <strong>Aurelia Browder</strong>, <strong>Susie McDonald</strong> och <strong>Mary Louise Smith</strong> &#8211; som 1956 ledde till att en federal domstol slog fast att bussegregation stred mot konstitutionen. Ett beslut som senare fastst&#228;lldes av USA:s h&#246;gsta domstol.</p><p>Efter all uppst&#229;ndelse flyttade Colvin till New York d&#228;r hon under st&#246;rre delen av sitt arbetsf&#246;ra liv jobbade som v&#229;rdbitr&#228;de.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic" width="980" height="1226" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1226,&quot;width&quot;:980,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:126081,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/184543223?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qt7r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcd454396-feef-4ee3-a8e9-039baa706727_980x1226.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Claudette Colvin som 81-&#229;ring. Foto: Andi Rice.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Idag kom nyheten att Colvin har d&#246;tt, 86 &#229;r gammal. Hon var en av medborgarr&#228;ttsr&#246;relsens mer dolda giganter, och hennes liv &#228;r en p&#229;minnelse om att det bakom de allra k&#228;ndaste ikonerna alltid finns personer vars bidrag och insatser &#228;r ov&#228;rderliga &#8211; osynliggjorda m&#228;nniskor som f&#246;r&#228;ndrar, &#228;ven n&#228;r de aldrig blir de namn som historien helst minns.</p><p>En lika viktig lektion i dagens motst&#229;ndsr&#246;relser.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[När imperiet slutar låtsas]]></title><description><![CDATA[Hur en tecknad bild avsl&#246;jar ett USA som inte l&#228;ngre f&#246;rkl&#228;der sina ambitioner att plundra och h&#228;rska.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/nar-imperiet-slutar-latsas</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/nar-imperiet-slutar-latsas</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 12 Jan 2026 18:20:57 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic" width="1440" height="958" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:958,&quot;width&quot;:1440,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:171846,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/i/184005767?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k7bG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fc7d33d-05c3-4875-9579-79b476a63bfe_1440x958.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Federala agenter eskorterar Nicol&#225;s Maduro i New York, den 5 januari 2026. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Under dagarna efter <strong>USA:s</strong> illegala milit&#228;ra intervention i <strong>Venezuela</strong> har de amerikanska utspelen avl&#246;st varandra. </p><p><em>&#8221;Kubas regering borde vara orolig&#8221;</em>, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/national-security/marco-rubio-believes-cuba-trouble-havana-maduro-military-venezuela-rcna252150">hotar</a> utrikesministern <strong>Marco Rubio</strong>. </p><p><em>&#8221;V&#228;rlden regeras av styrka, kraft och makt&#8221;</em>, <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2026/01/06/politics/trump-greenland-venezuela-colombia-miller-analysis">konstaterar</a> vice stabschefen<strong> Stephen Miller</strong>. </p><p><em>&#8221;Vi beh&#246;ver Gr&#246;nland&#8221;</em>, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4g0zg974v1o">upprepar</a> president <strong>Donald Trump</strong>. </p><p>Herrarna i Vita huset verkar n&#246;jda med sig sj&#228;lva, berusade av tanken p&#229; vad mer de kan driva igenom milit&#228;rt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic" width="1242" height="1488" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QCKD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbcb97be3-68da-4b72-aef9-a0482e442397_1242x1488.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Men ett av de mer klarg&#246;rande utspelen sm&#246;g sig igenom i form av en tweet. P&#229; <strong>X</strong> la <em>@TrumpWarRoom</em>, ett konto knutet till administrationen, <a href="https://x.com/TrumpWarRoom/status/2007558804582609344">ut en bild</a> f&#246;rest&#228;llande en gigantisk Trump som bredbent tornar upp sig &#246;ver Amerika &#8211; fr&#229;n <strong>Kanada</strong> i norr till <strong>Argentina</strong> i s&#246;der. I ena handen h&#229;ller han en batong med orden &#8221;The Donroe Doctrine&#8221;. Inl&#228;gget delades sedan vidare av f&#246;rsvarsminister<strong> Pete Hegseth</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic" width="719" height="1024" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1024,&quot;width&quot;:719,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:152036,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/i/184005767?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PuGa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F899a2517-da0a-4e00-ac20-66a18e237ba4_719x1024.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Bilden &#228;r en &#246;vertydlig blinkning till tecknaren <strong>Louis Dalrymples</strong> klassiska illustration fr&#229;n tidigt 1900-tal, som cirkulerade i satir- och humormagasin som <em>Puck</em> och <em>Judge</em>. I Dalrymples version &#228;r det Uncle Sam som brer ut sig och batongen &#8211; symbolen f&#246;r USA:s milit&#228;ra makt &#8211; b&#228;r orden &#8221;The Monroe Doctrine&#8221;. </p><p>Monroedoktrinen &#228;r ett direktiv fr&#229;n 1823 utf&#228;rdat av den d&#229;varande presidenten <strong>James Monroe</strong> och som inledningsvis slog fast det oacceptabla i en fortsatt europeisk inblandning i den nya v&#228;rlden. Vad som till en b&#246;rjan kunde ses som ett antikolonialt f&#246;rh&#229;llningss&#228;tt kom dock kort d&#228;rp&#229; att syfta till amerikansk dominans p&#229; det v&#228;stra halvklotet.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Man &#228;r allts&#229; naiv eller okunnig om USA:s m&#229;nga historiska interventioner i <strong>Karibien</strong>, <strong>Central</strong>- och <strong>Sydamerika</strong> om man tror att ingripandet i Venezuela representerar en ny geopolitisk inriktning. Det &#228;r snarare en tillbakag&#229;ng till en period d&#229; USA s&#229;g den v&#228;ldiga regionen som sin bakg&#229;rd, d&#228;r man fritt kunde st&#246;rta eller installera ledare, avkr&#228;va tribut och diktera reglerna.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic" width="456" height="614" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:614,&quot;width&quot;:456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:46972,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/i/184005767?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7Fod!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82de8fec-213e-409d-baea-0dcaf88abf94_456x614.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Amerikanska soldater med en tillf&#229;ngatagen haitisk rebell 1915. Del av USA:s ockupation av Haiti mellan 1915 och 1934. (Foto fr&#229;n <em>The American Conservative</em>, publicerad den 1 april, 2010.) </figcaption></figure></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic" width="1456" height="947" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:947,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:330879,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/i/184005767?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ehec!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fba307d41-c960-474c-862d-acfe42fdf993_1600x1041.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Tillf&#229;ngatagna CIA-sponsrade exilkubaner under den misslyckade Grisbuktsinvasionen &#229;r 1961. (Foto: Miguel Vinas/AFP via Getty Images.)</figcaption></figure></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic" width="738" height="534" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:534,&quot;width&quot;:738,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:85902,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/i/184005767?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VZLz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4676dd06-c13b-4e30-afff-111b6a6cce7f_738x534.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ett bepansrat amerikanskt transportfordon under invasionen av Panama 1989.(Foto: J. Elliot.)</figcaption></figure></div><p>Men vad Trump har gjort tydligare &#228;n tidigare &#228;r det explicita m&#229;let. Vita huset bem&#246;dar sig knappt l&#228;ngre med att f&#246;rkl&#228; det hela i den traditionella skruden av demokratifr&#228;mjande och kommunismbek&#228;mpning. </p><p>Visst, att f&#246;rhindra ett &#246;kat kinesiskt inflytande i Sydamerika finns med som ett argument i bakgrunden, men mest av halvhj&#228;rtad vana. Och f&#246;rs&#246;ket att sk&#246;nm&#229;la kidnappningen av Venezuelas omtvistade &#246;verhuvud <strong>Nicol&#225;s Maduro</strong> som en <em>&#8221;law enforcement operation&#8221;</em>, ett slags juridiskt befogat polisi&#228;rt &#228;rende, lurar ingen. <strong>Putin</strong>, som inte definierar invasionen av <strong>Ukraina</strong> som ett krig utan som en <em>&#8221;special military operation&#8221;</em>, hade varit stolt &#246;ver formuleringen.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/p/trumps-imperial-moment?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjoxNTQ4MzAxMDcsInBvc3RfaWQiOjE4NDAwNTc2NywiaWF0IjoxNzY3OTYxMzMxLCJleHAiOjE3NzA1NTMzMzEsImlzcyI6InB1Yi0zODIxNjkyIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.ErbNJDl8WsbUpziD2yNrDpWRvX9-X6EnP1kcks1v4Us&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:&quot;button-wrapper&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary button-wrapper" href="https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/p/trumps-imperial-moment?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&amp;token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjoxNTQ4MzAxMDcsInBvc3RfaWQiOjE4NDAwNTc2NywiaWF0IjoxNzY3OTYxMzMxLCJleHAiOjE3NzA1NTMzMzEsImlzcyI6InB1Yi0zODIxNjkyIiwic3ViIjoicG9zdC1yZWFjdGlvbiJ9.ErbNJDl8WsbUpziD2yNrDpWRvX9-X6EnP1kcks1v4Us"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Ist&#228;llet har Trump gjort det glasklart vad det handlar om: olja. Det &#228;r utvinnandet av naturresurser som intresserar Trump, inte fri press, demokratiska val eller medborgerliga r&#228;ttigheter. Hade s&#229; varit fallet hade han knappast kunnat f&#246;rsvara de n&#228;ra banden till Gulfstaternas monarker, eller hans varma relation med autokrater som <strong>Erdo&#287;an</strong> och <strong>Orb&#225;n</strong>.</p><p>I dagarna gick Trump &#228;nnu l&#228;ngre, och kungjorde att Venezuelas olja fr&#229;n och med nu ska levereras till USA och att pengarna som f&#246;rs&#228;ljningen genererar ska kontrolleras av honom sj&#228;lv. </p><p>I <a href="https://x.com/Acyn/status/2009073815066947750?s=20">en f&#228;rsk intervju </a>med <em>Fox News </em>programledare <em>Jesse Waters </em>upprepade vicepresidenten <strong>JD Vance </strong>budskapet. &#214;vertagandet av Venezuela gagnar vanliga amerikaner eftersom det inneb&#228;r att USA <em>&#8221;har kontroll &#246;ver Venezuelas otroliga naturresurser&#8221;</em> vilket bland annat s&#228;kerst&#228;ller att <em>&#8221;amerikaner alltid kommer att ha tillg&#229;ng till h&#246;gkvalitativ billig energi&#8221;</em>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8XwU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb32d55a-2882-4246-a94a-6969eb06ef55_1280x1659.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8XwU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb32d55a-2882-4246-a94a-6969eb06ef55_1280x1659.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8XwU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb32d55a-2882-4246-a94a-6969eb06ef55_1280x1659.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8XwU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb32d55a-2882-4246-a94a-6969eb06ef55_1280x1659.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8XwU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb32d55a-2882-4246-a94a-6969eb06ef55_1280x1659.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8XwU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb32d55a-2882-4246-a94a-6969eb06ef55_1280x1659.heic" width="1280" height="1659" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Den amerikanska presidentens agerande p&#229;minner om den brittiske industrimagnaten <strong>Cecil Rhodes </strong>som redan 1892 avbildades precis som Uncle Sam och Trump. Men ist&#228;llet f&#246;r att kasta sin skugga &#246;ver Amerika str&#228;ckte han sig &#246;ver Afrika. </p><p>Illustrationen publicerades i det brittiska satirmagasinet <em>Punch</em> och gestaltade Rhodes vision om en t&#229;g- och telegrafilinje mellan <strong>Storbritanniens</strong> afrikanska kolonier, fr&#229;n <strong>Egypten</strong> till <strong>Sydafrika</strong>. En slags kronjuvel f&#246;r hans ambitioner om att f&#246;ra &#8220;civilisation&#8221; till en kontinent full av &#8221;vildingar&#8221;.</p><p>Men mest av allt var Rhodes intresserad av gruvor och mineraler. P&#229; 1870-talet h&#228;ngav han sig &#229;t den sydafrikanska guld- och diamantruschen och via en rad mer eller mindre tvivelaktiga avtal kom hans f&#246;retag <strong>De Beers</strong> att fullkomligt dominera den lukrativa diamantindustrin.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PrYb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Febf2fff5-c236-462c-8fe1-234f89d16f44_800x621.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PrYb!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Febf2fff5-c236-462c-8fe1-234f89d16f44_800x621.heic 424w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Zulum&#228;n arbetar i De Beers diamantgruva i Kimberley i nuvarande Sydafrika cirka 1885. (Foto: Ann Ronan Picture Library / Heritage Images / Science Photo Library)</figcaption></figure></div><p>Likt Trump var Rhodes en aff&#228;rsman som med hj&#228;lp av sitt kapital gav sig in i politiken och kom att styra &#246;ver hela stater: f&#246;rst den brittiska <strong>Kapkolonin</strong> och senare kolonin han sj&#228;lv grundade: <strong>Rhodesia</strong>, dagens <strong>Zimbabwe</strong>.</p><p>Illustrationen d&#228;r Rhodes st&#229;r &#246;ver Afrika, kallad <em>Rhodeskolossen</em>, publicerades under en tid d&#229; Storbritannien inte l&#228;ngre bad om urs&#228;kt f&#246;r sitt imperium. Den brittiska dominansen var ett faktum och inget annat land hade n&#229;got att s&#228;tta emot.</p><p>P&#229; samma s&#228;tt kan Trumpadministrationens egna delande av Donroedoktrinbilden ses som ett tecken p&#229; att USA i allt h&#246;gre utstr&#228;ckning har fr&#229;ng&#229;tt sin tidigare charad.</p><p>Man tillbringar allt mindre tid med att konstruera moraliska svepsk&#228;l f&#246;r sina &#246;vergrepp, man blir allt mer &#246;ppen med att man i egenskap av v&#228;rldens m&#228;ktigaste nation har r&#228;tt att g&#246;ra anspr&#229;k p&#229; <strong>Panamakanalen</strong>, kr&#228;va mineraler fr&#229;n Ukraina, annektera <strong>Gr&#246;nland</strong> och kort sagt k&#246;ra &#246;ver oss andra.</p><p>En av 2000-talets l&#228;rdomar &#228;r att epitetet &#8221;terrorist&#8221; l&#229;ser upp alla t&#228;nkbara bek&#228;mpningsmetoder: drakonisk &#246;vervakning, godtyckliga frihetsber&#246;vanden, f&#228;ngslanden utan r&#228;tteg&#229;ngar, till och med tortyr. Allt p&#229;st&#229;s vara legitimt i kampen mot terrorism.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic" width="1456" height="818" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:818,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:41020,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.blackhistoryunveiled.com/i/184005767?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!71aK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4971e278-5a1f-4576-9895-57b484f48c8f_1536x863.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Det h&#228;r fotot las upp p&#229; Donald Trumps Truth Social-konto i september 2025 och f&#246;rest&#228;ller en p&#229;st&#229;dd knarkb&#229;t sekundrarna innan den b&#246;rjar brinna. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Att det skulle sluta s&#229; h&#228;r f&#246;r Nicol&#225;s Maduro var d&#228;rf&#246;r v&#228;ntat. Allt, fr&#229;n st&#228;mplandet av Venezuela som en fristad f&#246;r &#8221;narcoterrorister&#8221; till den exekutiva ordern som klassade fentanyl som ett massf&#246;rst&#246;relsevapen, har berett v&#228;gen f&#246;r trestegsraketen som b&#246;rjade med spr&#228;ngningarna av p&#229;st&#229;dda knarkb&#229;tar i Karibien, fortsatte med kapningen av oljefartyg och nu kulminerade i Maduros detronisering.</p><p>Det g&#229;r att urskilja en r&#246;d linje fr&#229;n Rhodeskolossen och vidare till Monroe- och Donroedoktrinerna: tre bilder som p&#229; 1800-, 1900- och 2000-talet illustrerar den starkes r&#228;tt att plundra och h&#228;rska efter eget behag.</p><p>Tv&#228;rtemot vad de sj&#228;lvutn&#228;mnda Trumptydarna ofta p&#229;st&#229;r &#8211; att hans hot endast &#228;r retorik, att han spelar ett spel s&#229; taktiskt avancerat att vi vanliga d&#246;dliga inte f&#246;rst&#229;r &#8211; &#228;r det sedan l&#228;nge h&#246;g tid att ta honom p&#229; orden. </p><p>Hans administration ser sig p&#229; allvar som en global &#246;verherre, medan resten av Amerika, och i f&#246;rl&#228;ngningen v&#228;rlden, &#228;r n&#229;got f&#246;r dem att s&#228;tta f&#246;tterna p&#229;.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>En kortare version av denna text publicerades ursprungligen i DN. Ni hittar den <a href="https://www.dn.se/kultur/amat-levin-putin-hade-varit-stolt-over-trumps-operationer/">h&#228;r</a>. </em></p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Tidöregeringens dubbelmoral i skuggan av Sudan]]></title><description><![CDATA[Sedan 2019 har jag uppm&#228;rksammat l&#228;get i Sudan och de senaste &#229;ren &#229;terkommande skrivit om det fruktansv&#228;rda kriget som just nu trasar s&#246;nder landet.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/tidoregeringens-dubbelmoral-i-skuggan</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/tidoregeringens-dubbelmoral-i-skuggan</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 06 Nov 2025 11:21:03 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YR5w!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6b08c9c-54a2-4276-b5d3-1b8cc7c6202d_712x475.heic" width="712" height="475" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Utrikesminister Maria Malmer Stenergard och H.H. Shejk Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan, F&#246;renade Arabemiratens utrikesminister, under ett m&#246;te i Sverige v&#229;ren 2025. Foto: Frida Drake/Regeringskansliet.</figcaption></figure></div><p><a href="https://www.instagram.com/stories/highlights/18032887564945656/?hl=en">Sedan 2019 </a>har jag uppm&#228;rksammat l&#228;get i <strong>Sudan</strong> och de senaste &#229;ren &#229;terkommande skrivit om det fruktansv&#228;rda kriget som just nu trasar s&#246;nder landet. Se exempelvis <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sudans-sonderfall">h&#228;r</a> f&#246;r en grundlig bakgrund, <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten">h&#228;r</a> f&#246;r det senaste om fallet av staden <strong>el-Fasher</strong> eller <a href="https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/amat-levin-lidandet-i-sudan-fortsatter">h&#228;r</a> f&#246;r att lyssna p&#229; det i ljudform. Jag har &#228;ven skrivit om den <a href="https://www.dn.se/kultur/amat-levin-det-ar-omojligt-att-fa-bort-bilderna-av-lemlastade-kroppar-i-gaza-fran-nathinnan/">illa dolda whataboutismen</a> som st&#228;ller Sudan och andra h&#228;rjade omr&#229;den mot <strong>Gaza</strong>. </p><p>Sedan det nuvarande kriget br&#246;t ut v&#229;ren 2023 har en gemensam n&#228;mnare f&#246;r mina skriverier varit att s&#228;tta str&#229;lkastarljuset p&#229; <strong>F&#246;renade Arabemiratens </strong>uppenbara roll i det sudanesiska lidandet. Emiratet &#246;ser n&#228;mligen pengar och vapen, som man importerat fr&#229;n andra l&#228;nder, &#246;ver den paramilit&#228;ra milisen <em>Rapid Support Forces</em> (<strong>RFS</strong>). En milis som gjort krigsbrott och folkmord till sitt k&#228;nnetecken. I utbyte f&#229;r man bland annat <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten">guld, b&#246;rdig mark och ett st&#246;rre regionalt inflytande</a>.</p><div><hr></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;7b32d3b4-a860-47c2-b4eb-53d27a723d15&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Den senaste veckan har f&#246;rf&#228;rliga bilder spridits fr&#229;n Sudan, specifikt fr&#229;n den v&#228;stliga staden el-Fasher som i dagarna f&#246;ll till den paramilit&#228;ra rebellarm&#233;n Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Massavr&#228;ttningar, kidnappningar och v&#229;l&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;lg&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Guld och blod: F&#246;renade Arabemiraten och det sudanesiska folkmordet&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:154830107,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Swedish-Gambian journalist, editor and author living in Stockholm.&quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c2c4cc58-465b-474a-a951-0b48e64ec956.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-31T15:52:29.741Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fy2p!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa3576b07-dba7-46e5-81df-2ac5b6a104f4_770x513.heic&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:177640912,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:3822263,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;Svart historia&quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6tQ9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F721ed93d-0bdd-4adc-bd96-427ae44eb9ae_1080x1080.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p>I och med RFS framg&#229;ngar med att i princip klyva Sudan i tv&#229; &#228;r det allt mer tydligt att kriget inte kommer att f&#229; ett slut s&#229; l&#228;nge F&#246;renade Arabemiraten kvarst&#229;r som en finansi&#228;r och logistisk st&#246;ttepelare. Det &#228;r d&#228;rf&#246;r upp till omv&#228;rlden att f&#246;rm&#229; emiratet att upph&#246;ra med sitt RFS-st&#246;d. <br><br>&#196;ven Sverige har ett stort och v&#228;xande handelsutbyte med F&#246;renade Arabemiraten. Exempelvis har emiratet seglat upp som den fr&#228;msta <a href="https://www.isp.se/media/0yddwrrl/pressmeddelande-2024.pdf">import&#246;ren av svenska vapen</a>. Sverige skulle d&#228;rf&#246;r, g&#228;rna tillsammans med resten av <strong>EU</strong>, kunna anv&#228;nda dessa handelsf&#246;rbindelser f&#246;r att pressa landet. Men fr&#229;n Tid&#246;regeringen verkat intresset minst sagt svalt.</p><p><a href="https://www.aftonbladet.se/nyheter/a/4B648g/rsf-milisens-allierade-koper-svenska-vapen">I en artikel i </a><em><a href="https://www.aftonbladet.se/nyheter/a/4B648g/rsf-milisens-allierade-koper-svenska-vapen">Aftonbladet </a></em><a href="https://www.aftonbladet.se/nyheter/a/4B648g/rsf-milisens-allierade-koper-svenska-vapen">den 4 november 2025</a> svarade den svenska bist&#229;nds- och utrikeshandelsministern <strong>Benjamin Dousa</strong> (M) p&#229; hur Sverige ser p&#229; sin handel med ett land som &#228;r en aktiv part i att sponsra m&#228;nskligt lidande p&#229; en obegriplig niv&#229;:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic" width="1382" height="1648" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GP6U!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22f61558-77bd-455e-8fed-a3d2da945932_1382x1648.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Som om bojkotter, isolation eller press skulle vara obepr&#246;vade grepp. Som om det enda s&#228;ttet att p&#229;verka ett annat land &#228;r att forts&#228;tta handla med det. Som om svenska jobb, svensk v&#228;lf&#228;rd m&#246;jligg&#246;rs av att vi s&#228;ljer vapen till F&#246;renade Arabemiraten.</p><p>Dagen efter, den 5 november, la Sveriges utrikesminister<strong> Maria Malmer Stenergard (</strong>M) upp f&#246;ljande video p&#229; <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DQrvhnJDO7a/?hl=en">sin Instagram</a>: <br></p><div class="native-video-embed" data-component-name="VideoPlaceholder" data-attrs="{&quot;mediaUploadId&quot;:&quot;e3852c95-ae77-449d-8d35-d8b73da20261&quot;,&quot;duration&quot;:null}"></div><ol><li><p>Stenergard fr&#229;gar sig varf&#246;r folk inte &#228;r ute p&#229; gator och torg och protesterar till st&#246;d f&#246;r Sudans inv&#229;nare. M&#228;rkligt, n&#228;r hon och hennes koalition har tillbringat de senaste tv&#229; &#229;ren med att kalla demonstranter f&#246;r <a href="https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/ulf-kristerssons-utspel-mot-demonstranterna-gaphalsar">gaphalsar</a>, <a href="https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/norrbotten/kallade-demonstranter-odjur-karlsson-m-backar-inte">odjur</a> och <a href="https://www.hd.se/helsingborg/hamaskramare-och-terrorister-ordkrig-efter-jimmie-akessons-tal-i-helsingborg/">terrorvurmare</a> samt &#246;ppnat f&#246;r att <a href="https://www.dn.se/debatt/palestinademonstranterna-maste-kunna-straffas-och-utvisas/">inskr&#228;nka demonstrationsfriheten</a>.</p></li><li><p>&#197;terigen: en konkret &#229;tg&#228;rd som Sverige och resten av EU kan ta f&#246;r att motverka kriget &#228;r att minska eller helt upph&#246;ra med vapenhandeln till F&#246;renade Arabemiraten. Men det vill inte heller Stenergard. I g&#229;rdagens <a href="https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/hor-utrikesministern-om-situationen-i-sudan">intervju i </a><em><a href="https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/hor-utrikesministern-om-situationen-i-sudan">Studio Ett </a></em>sa hon:</p></li></ol><blockquote><p><em> &#8221;Om man ska h&#229;rdra det resonemanget, d&#229; skulle vi stoppa all form av handel till alla l&#228;nder som inte tycker exakt som vi tycker. D&#229; skulle vi vara ganska ensamma.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Det &#228;r en, p&#229; gr&#228;nsen till imponerande, dubbelmoral som Tid&#246;politikerna visar upp. Dessv&#228;rre har det blivit denna regerings signum. </p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Guld och blod: Förenade Arabemiraten och det sudanesiska folkmordet]]></title><description><![CDATA[Emiratet skyr inga medel i jakten p&#229; ett neokolonialt afrikanskt herrav&#228;lde]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 31 Oct 2025 15:52:29 GMT</pubDate><enclosure 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fy2p!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa3576b07-dba7-46e5-81df-2ac5b6a104f4_770x513.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fy2p!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa3576b07-dba7-46e5-81df-2ac5b6a104f4_770x513.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fy2p!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa3576b07-dba7-46e5-81df-2ac5b6a104f4_770x513.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fy2p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa3576b07-dba7-46e5-81df-2ac5b6a104f4_770x513.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div 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stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"> &#214;verlevare som flytt el-Fasher och lyckats ta sig till Tawila i norra Darfur den 27 oktober 2025. Foto: Mohammed Jamal/Reuters.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Den senaste veckan har<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/video/newsfeed/2025/10/28/video-evidence-of-atrocities-emerges-as-sudans-rsf-seize-el-fasher#flips-6384203966112:0"> f&#246;rf&#228;rliga bilder</a> spridits fr&#229;n <strong>Sudan</strong>, specifikt fr&#229;n den v&#228;stliga staden <strong>el-Fasher</strong> som i dagarna f&#246;ll till den paramilit&#228;ra rebellarm&#233;n <em>Rapid Support Forces </em>(<strong>RSF</strong>). Massavr&#228;ttningar, kidnappningar och v&#229;ldt&#228;kter har avl&#246;st varandra &#8211; enligt <strong>WHO</strong> klampade soldaterna till och med in p&#229; ett f&#246;rlossningssjukhus och <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c364jgkge46o">sk&#246;t ihj&#228;l omkring 460 patienter</a>.</p><p>Men f&#246;r de som har f&#246;ljt Sudans <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sudans-sonderfall">p&#229;g&#229;ende s&#246;nderfall</a> kommer scenerna i el-Fasher inte som n&#229;gon &#246;verraskning. Innan staden slutligen er&#246;vrades hade den varit bel&#228;grad i 18 m&#229;nader, och tidigare i &#229;r visade satellitbilder hur RSF <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4gz1ekdee3o">gr&#228;vt en flera mil l&#229;ng jordvall runt staden</a>. Dels f&#246;r att sp&#228;rra in m&#228;nniskorna som s&#246;kt skydd i den, dels f&#246;r att fysiskt hindra f&#246;rn&#246;denheter fr&#229;n att ta sig in in.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>El-Fasher var redan innan en mer eller mindre isolerad stad &#8211; f&#246;rutom en samling sv&#229;rnavigerade &#246;kensp&#229;r finns det bara en asfalterad v&#228;g som binder samman den med resten av landet. En v&#228;g som RSF l&#228;nge kontrollerat. Desperata r&#246;ster har d&#228;rf&#246;r varnat f&#246;r vad som kommer att ske om RSF intar staden. Men som s&#229; ofta med Sudan har v&#228;djandet om hj&#228;lp fallit f&#246;r d&#246;va &#246;ron, och vi ser nu resultatet av likgiltigheten.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic" width="1456" height="1044" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1044,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:296525,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/177640912?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EvJ-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7496107a-5bad-4920-9c41-88d841a9b373_2006x1438.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Enligt Yale School of Public Health syns delar av massakern p&#229; satellitbilder. Fler bilder hittas <a href="https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/b9c14991-6b22-492e-9e16-f903d25d9b49">i den h&#228;r rapporten</a>. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Att el-Fashers fall var v&#228;ntat betyder inte att det var ofr&#229;nkomligt. I &#229;ratal har hj&#228;lporganisationer, aktivister och underr&#228;ttelserapporter &#8211; b&#229;de i Sudan och internationellt &#8211; flaggat f&#246;r<strong> F&#246;renade Arabemiratens</strong> avg&#246;rande roll i att sponsra rebellerna. Via <strong>Tchad</strong> och <strong>Libyen</strong> smugglas stora leveranser av vapen, milit&#228;rutrustning och sofistikerade <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/05/sudan-advanced-chinese-weaponry-provided-by-uae-identified-in-breach-of-arms-embargo-new-investigation/">Kinatillverkade dr&#246;nare</a> in till rebellerna i utbyte mot bland annat guld och b&#246;rdig mark.</p><p>Den f&#246;rt&#228;ckta involveringen i Sudan &#228;r det fr&#228;msta exemplet p&#229; emiratets h&#246;gstr&#228;vande ambitioner i Afrika. Fr&#229;n R&#246;da havet till kontinentens v&#228;stra kust har man p&#229; kort tid byggt upp ett <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/dec/24/uae-becomes-africa-biggest-investor-amid-rights-concerns">vidstr&#228;ckt n&#228;tverk</a> av <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67199490">hamnar</a>, logistiknav, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/abu-dhabis-irh-invest-11-bln-zambias-mopani-copper-mines-2023-12-22/">gruvor</a> och <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/18/uae-signs-deal-to-develop-mines-in-eastern-dr-congo">mineralavtal</a>. Detta n&#228;tverk inneb&#228;r ett gigantiskt och st&#228;ndigt &#246;kande inflytande &#246;ver afrikanska l&#228;nder, vars ledare s&#228;ljer sina nationers l&#229;ngsiktiga sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet f&#246;r personlig vinning och en kortsiktig st&#228;rkning av statskassan.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic" width="1220" height="864" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:864,&quot;width&quot;:1220,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:65452,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/177640912?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rux4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c877b40-dfea-4c41-a912-93230a2ce9f9_1220x864.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta av den ideella organisationen GRAIN som visar F&#246;renade Arabemiratens mark&#228;gande runtom i v&#228;rlden.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det &#228;r en form av maktprojicering som inte bygger p&#229; att annektera territorium utan p&#229; att ta kontroll &#246;ver de r&#229;varor och handelsart&#228;rer som ekonomiskt svagare stater &#228;r beroende av.</p><p>I F&#246;renade Arabemiratens &#246;gon &#228;r Sudan intressant av flera anledningar: <a href="https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/the-role-of-gold-in-the-sudanese-war-207364">f&#246;r sitt guld </a>som har hj&#228;lpt till att g&#246;ra <strong>Dubai</strong> till en av v&#228;rldens fr&#228;msta guldhubbar, samt f&#246;r <a href="https://grain.org/en/article/7170-from-land-to-logistics-uae-s-growing-power-in-the-global-food-system#_ftnref26">jordbruksmarken</a> som hj&#228;lper till att framtidss&#228;kra den egna livsmedelsf&#246;rs&#246;rjningen. Men ocks&#229; f&#246;r sin position l&#228;ngs R&#246;da havet, en av v&#228;rldens viktigaste handelsrutter.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:431005,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/177640912?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dqtG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb9bc8caa-ba60-416b-8537-de6490284146_1500x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Guldmarknad i Dubai. <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/05/30/billions-of-dollars-of-african-gold-smuggled-into-uae-yearly-research.html">Vissa siffror pekar p&#229; guld till ett v&#228;rde av 35 miljarder dollar &#229;rligen smugglas ut ur </a>Afrika och att upp till 85 procent av det hamnar i F&#246;renade Arabemiraten, som d&#228;refter blir en mellanhand i handeln med resten av v&#228;rlden.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Lyckas man dessutom ers&#228;tta <strong>Egypten</strong> som den mest inflytelserika nationen i regionen &#228;r mycket vunnet. Egypten &#228;r &#228;n idag en sponsor av Sudans <em>regulj&#228;ra arm&#233;</em> (<strong>SAF</strong>), RSF:s svurna fiende, men ju fler landomr&#229;den rebellerna tar &#246;ver, desto mer f&#229;r F&#246;renade Arabemiraten att s&#228;ga till om. Sudans s&#246;ndring och st&#246;ttandet av genocidala RSF-styrkor g&#246;r det tragiskt tydligt att emiratet inte skyr n&#229;gra medel f&#246;r att avancera sina positioner i omr&#229;det.</p><p>Trots sin uppenbara roll i det fruktansv&#228;rda kriget har emiratet &#8211; en turistmagnet, flitig vapenimport&#246;r och upph&#246;jt som en av v&#228;stv&#228;rldens viktigaste allierade i Mellan&#246;stern &#8211; helt undsluppit repressalier. Omv&#228;rldens ointresse i att f&#246;rm&#229; landet att upph&#246;ra med sitt st&#246;d till RSF har delvis d&#228;rf&#246;r m&#246;jliggjort milisens skoningsl&#246;sa framfart. Nyligen avsl&#246;jades att <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/oct/28/uk-military-equipment-rapid-support-forces-rsf-militia-accused-genocide-found-sudan-united-nations">brittiska, kanadensiska och andra v&#228;sterl&#228;ndska vapen hittats i h&#228;nderna p&#229; rebellerna</a>, vapen som allts&#229; tagit omv&#228;gen via emiratet.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic" width="1282" height="1022" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f39r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88182665-140d-4e12-ae63-5fca36d9a1db_1282x1022.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar uppdelningen av Sudan, den 26 oktober 2025. Via The Guardian. </figcaption></figure></div><p>I och med er&#246;vringen av el-Fasher, den sista av regeringens provinshuvudst&#228;der i den enorma <strong>Darfurregionen</strong>, har landet i princip klyvts i tv&#229; mellan krigets huvudspelare: RSF i v&#228;st och SAF i &#246;st. Ingen sida m&#228;ktar &#228;nnu med att helt besegra den andra och det som v&#228;ntar den n&#228;rmaste tiden &#228;r ett slags d&#246;dl&#228;ge d&#228;r etnisk utrensning, sv&#228;lt och ekonomiskt f&#246;rfall kan forts&#228;tta oh&#228;mmat. Sedan kriget br&#246;t ut v&#229;ren 2023 har troligtvis hundratusentals d&#246;tt och bara idag &#228;r minst 25 miljoner sudaneser i behov av n&#246;dhj&#228;lp medan 14 miljoner har tvingats p&#229; flykt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic" width="1274" height="846" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:846,&quot;width&quot;:1274,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:203093,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/177640912?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q3U_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F793fc82b-cc94-4a2e-ab14-e03a0d8544fb_1274x846.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Vapenm&#228;ssa i F&#246;renade Arabemiraten. Landet har l&#228;nge varit en stor vapenimport&#246;r, men blir nu en allt st&#246;rre spelare inom exportindustrin.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Att of&#246;rr&#228;tterna i el-Fasher verkar ha <a href="https://x.com/kajakallas/status/1983431498867896768">skakat liv i v&#228;sterl&#228;ndska politiker</a> &#228;r naturligtvis v&#228;lkommet. Men med tanke p&#229; hur l&#228;nge sudaneser b&#246;nfallit om hj&#228;lp k&#228;nns politikernas ord om att de bekymras &#246;ver utvecklingen b&#229;de yrvakna och p&#229; tok f&#246;rsent tillkomna. Vapnen har ju redan levererats och &#246;vergreppen utf&#246;rs i detta nu.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/guld-och-blod-forenade-arabemiraten?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>&#196;n &#228;r det dock inte f&#246;rsent att p&#229;verka situationen i stort. RSF har instiftat en parallell regering i v&#228;st och &#228;mnar uppenbarligen att beh&#229;lla omr&#229;dena man er&#246;vrat. Men Sudan &#228;r ett enormt land och RSF kan orimligen konsolidera makten utan fortsatt uppbackning fr&#229;n F&#246;renade Arabemiraten.</p><p>Det &#228;r allts&#229; h&#246;g tid f&#246;r resten av v&#228;rlden att omv&#228;rdera sin relation till emiratet. Fr&#229;n att strypa sina vapenexporter till att b&#246;rja betrakta guldet som s&#228;ljs i Dubais souks som en konfliktmineral. Fr&#229;n att kr&#228;va transparens om relationen till RSF till att ut&#246;va diplomatisk press.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic" width="1200" height="1200" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1200,&quot;width&quot;:1200,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:70868,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/177640912?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ylxK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ba448b1-7a58-4a1a-9e76-34996a2b0b40_1200x1200.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Donald Trump med Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, vicepresident av F&#246;renade Arabemiraten och &#228;gare av den engelska fotbollsklubben Manchester City.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Men f&#246;r att det ska ske m&#229;ste fascinationen f&#246;r emirates &#246;verfl&#246;d, eller<a href="https://www.youtube.com/shorts/GOtZ8v6OoQI"> &#8221;unlimited cash&#8221;</a> som <strong>Donald Trump </strong>nyligen uttryckte det, brytas. F&#246;renade Arabemiraten &#228;r inte bara en semesterort och ett finanscenter. Det &#228;r inte bara dr&#246;mlika str&#228;nder, spegelblanka skyskrapor och oh&#228;mmad shopping.</p><p>Det &#228;r ett land vars skrupelfria ledare &#228;r beredda att finansiera ett m&#228;nskligt lidande p&#229; ofattbar niv&#229; i sin jakt p&#229; ett neokolonialt afrikanskt herrav&#228;lde. F&#246;rst n&#228;r vi &#228;r &#228;rliga om emiratets skamliga inblandning och ser till att det upph&#246;r har Sudan en chans att vakna upp fr&#229;n sin mardr&#246;m.</p><div><hr></div><h3>L&#228;s mer</h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>The Secret War in the Sudan: 1955&#8211;1972</em> av Edgar O&#8217;Ballance (1976)</p><p><em>War and Slavery in Sudan </em>av Jok Madut Jok (2001</p><p><em>The Root Causes of Sudan&#8217;s Civil Wars: Peace Or Truce </em>av Douglas H. Johnson (2003)</p><p><em>Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence</em> av Jok Madut Jok (2007)</p><p><em>The State of Africa</em> av Martin Meredith (2011)</p><p><em>South Sudan: From Revolution to Independence</em> av Matthew LeRiche och Matthew Arnold (2012)</p><p><em>Breaking Sudan: The Search for Peace </em>av Jok Madut Jok (2017)</p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8220;The UAE&#8217;s Neo-Venetian Empire&#8221; av Brad Pearce p&#229; <em><a href="https://www.thewaywardrabbler.com/p/the-uaes-neo-venetian-empire?open=false#%C2%A7land-graining-the-desert">The Wayward Rabbler</a></em> (June 22, 2025)</p><p>&#8220;UK military equipment used by militia accused of genocide found in Sudan, UN told&#8221; av Mark Townsend f&#246;r <em>The Guardian </em>(28 oktober 2025)</p><p>&#8220;Video evidence of atrocities emerges as Sudan&#8217;s RSF seizes el-Fasher&#8221; av <em>al-Jazeera </em>(28 oktober 2025)</p><p>&#8220;Sudanese RSF militia killed 460 people at el-Fasher hospital, says WHO&#8221; av Lucy Fleming och Richard Kagoe f&#246;r <em>BBC</em> (29 oktober 2025)</p><p>&#8221;&#8216;They killed civilians in their beds&#8217;: chaos and brutality reign after fall of El Fasher&#8221; av Zeinab Mohammed Salih f&#246;r <em>The Guardian </em>(30 oktober 2025)</p><p>&#8220;Survivors fleeing Sudan&#8217;s el-Fasher recount terror, bodies in streets&#8221; av <em>al-Jazeera </em>(30 oktober 2025)</p><p><strong>&#214;vrigt:</strong></p><p>From Land to Logistics: UAE&#8217;s Growing Power in the Global Food System av GRAIN (3 juli 2024)</p><p>&#8220;Minerals (also) for Defence: Unlocking the Emirati Mining Rush&#8221; av Eleonora Ardemagni f&#246;r Italian Institute for International Political Studies (23 juli 2024)</p><p>&#8220;Civilians Around Sudan&#8217;s El Fasher Face New Attacks&#8221; av Laetitia Bader f&#246;r Human Rights Watch (11 april 2025)</p><p>&#8220;Sudan at War: Internal Divisions, Regional Rivalries, and International Inertia&#8221; av Lucia Ragazzi och Sara de Simone f&#246;r Italian Institute for International Political Studies (30 april 2025)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Gustav III:s mörkande av den svenska slavhandeln]]></title><description><![CDATA[I f&#246;rra inl&#228;gget skrev jag om Sveriges roll i den transatlantiska slavhandeln och den svenska oviljan att k&#228;nnas vid de mindre smickrande delarna av v&#229;r historia.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/gustav-iiis-morkande-av-den-svenska</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/gustav-iiis-morkande-av-den-svenska</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 13 Oct 2025 17:06:08 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic" width="1024" height="1714" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1714,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:314773,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/176041750?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yIId!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F23ad4ac8-9837-4201-aaf8-00b241bfef16_1024x1714.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Gustav III, kung av Sverige fr&#229;n 1771 till 1792. M&#229;lad av Alexander Roslin &#229;r 1777. </figcaption></figure></div><p><br>I<a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska"> f&#246;rra inl&#228;gget </a>skrev jag om <strong>Sveriges roll i den transatlantiska slavhandeln</strong> och den svenska oviljan att k&#228;nnas vid de mindre smickrande delarna av v&#229;r historia. En kolonial gl&#246;mska som fram tills nylien, och till viss del fortfarande, pr&#228;glar Sverigebilden.</p><p>Men denna minnesf&#246;rlust &#228;r inget nytt p&#229;fund utan har tv&#228;rt om en l&#229;ng historia. I d&#229;tida svenska tidningar, resereportage och b&#246;cker f&#246;rekom visserligen kritik mot slaveri flitigt. Men fokus l&#229;g oftast p&#229; andra l&#228;nders agerande. Rapporter om vad som f&#246;rsiggick p&#229;<strong> Saint Barth&#233;lemy </strong>fanns, men de var f&#228;rre.</p><p>Den svenska kungen <strong>Gustav III </strong>gick sj&#228;lv i br&#228;schen f&#246;r att d&#246;lja den svenska slavhandeln. Det framg&#229;r i den brittiske slaverimotst&#229;ndare <strong>Thomas Clarksons </strong>bok <em>The History of the Rise, Progress And Accomplishment of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade by the British Parliament (</em>1808).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic" width="1372" height="1200" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1200,&quot;width&quot;:1372,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:136640,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/176041750?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKdt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82449455-a07b-49e3-b5eb-1ec2eb431bcf_1372x1200.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>I den beskriver han ett problem som slaverimotst&#229;ndarna f&#246;ruts&#229;g. &#196;ven om de skulle lyckas driva igenom ett brittiskt f&#246;rbud mot slavhandel var de oroade f&#246;r att andra l&#228;nder skulle forts&#228;tta. Sverige var ett av dem.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic" width="1456" height="1741" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/bb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1741,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:808084,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/176041750?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGUA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbb13e237-5728-47bc-8b50-dcbd1e1bc78d_1920x2296.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Thomas Clarkson, m&#229;lad av Henry Room cirka 1840.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Antislaverikommitt&#233;n som Clarkson ingick i gav d&#228;rf&#246;r den svenske forskaren och abolitionisten<strong> Anders Sparrman</strong> i uppdrag att f&#246;rse Gustav III med en samling brittiska b&#246;cker om slaveriet. Ambitionen var att &#246;vertyga den svenske kungen om att f&#246;rhindra svenskar fr&#229;n att delta i handeln.</p><p>Enligt Clarkson svarade kungen att han hade f&#229;tt ta &#246;ver Saint Barth&#233;lemy fr&#229;n fransm&#228;nnen och att &#246;n redan hade varit bebodd av afrikanska f&#246;rslavade. Kungen sa ocks&#229; att han var medveten om deras h&#229;rda situation men att inga svenskar, s&#229;vitt han visste, var inblandade i handeln. Han lovade att &#228;ven i forts&#228;ttningen g&#246;ra allt i sin makt f&#246;r att svenska handelsm&#228;n skulle h&#229;lla sig borta.</p><p>Men den svenska kungens p&#229;st&#229;enden var ren l&#246;gn. Det var Gustav III och hans kungliga r&#229;d som flera &#229;r tidigare, via ett privilegiebrev, godk&#228;nde skapandet av <strong>Svenska V&#228;stindiska Kompaniet</strong>, som sk&#246;tte den karibiska handeln. I brevet fastslogs att handel med slavar var till&#229;tet.</p><p>Kungafamiljen var dessutom den st&#246;rsta enskilda aktie&#228;garen i kompaniet och Gustav III var personligen involverad i styrandet av kolonin.</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-button-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/gustav-iiis-morkande-av-den-svenska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;}" data-component-name="CaptionedButtonToDOM"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Svart historia! This post is public so feel free to share it.</p></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/gustav-iiis-morkande-av-den-svenska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/gustav-iiis-morkande-av-den-svenska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p></div><div><hr></div><h3><strong>L&#228;s mer:</strong></h3><p><em>The History of the Rise, Progress And Accomplishment of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade by the British Parliament</em> av Thomas Clarkson (1808)</p><p><em>Den svenska kolonin S:t Barth&#233;lemy och V&#228;stindiska kompaniet fram till 1796 </em>av Ingegerd Hildebrand (1951)</p><p><em>&#214;n som Sverige s&#229;lde </em>av Bengt Sj&#246;gren (1966)</p><p><em>Det kungliga svenska slaveriet </em>av G&#246;ran Skytte (1985)</p><p><em>Svarta Saint-Barth&#233;lemy: M&#228;nnisko&#246;den i en svensk koloni 1785-1847 </em>av Fredrik Thomasson (2022)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Sveriges roll i den transatlantiska slavhandeln]]></title><description><![CDATA[Cabo Corso, Saint-Barth&#233;lemy och den koloniala gl&#246;mskan]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 09 Oct 2025 19:59:33 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic" width="828" height="459" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vJRb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1aaaf954-fad1-47b1-a9aa-7c6603bf591b_828x459.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Drottning Kristina, som gav sitt till&#229;tande till formandet av Svenska Afrikakompaniet och bildandet av Cabo Corso (bild l&#229;nad fr&#229;n KIT, 2015). </figcaption></figure></div><p>Fram tills relativt nyligen har id&#233;n funnits, b&#229;de nationellt och internationellt, att Sverige aldrig har besudlats av kolonialismens eller den transatlantiska slavhandelns brott. Ett led i den romantiserade bilden av Sverige som ett moraliskt f&#246;red&#246;me.</p><p>Men de senaste &#229;ren har denna bild b&#246;rjat luckras upp, i takt med att den 9 oktober blivit mer etablerat som en dag att minnas det svenska slaveriets avskaffande. P&#229; det datumet &#229;r 1847 frik&#246;ptes n&#228;mligen de sista f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskorna p&#229; den svenska kolonin S:t Barth&#233;lemy.</p><h3>Nya Sverige</h3><p>Slaveri avskaffades i Sverige redan &#229;r 1335, men det hindrade inte Sverige fr&#229;n att bedriva slavhandel utanf&#246;r landets gr&#228;nser. Ett tidigt f&#246;rs&#246;k gjordes i kolonin <strong>Nya Sverige</strong>, som p&#229; 1630-talet etablerades i ett omr&#229;de som idag utg&#246;rs av <strong>New Jersey</strong>, <strong>Delaware</strong> och <strong>Pennsylvania</strong>.</p><p>Det fanns &#229;tminstone en f&#246;rslavad afrikan i kolonin: den s&#229; kallade <strong>Anthony Swart</strong>, som anl&#228;nde ombord fartyget F&#229;gel Grip. B&#229;ten hade dessf&#246;rinnan f&#228;rdats genom Karibien och det var antagligen d&#228;r han f&#246;rv&#228;rvades. Han r&#228;knas &#228;n idag som den f&#246;rsta namngivna f&#246;rslavade afrikanen i Delawares historia. Ekonomiska sv&#229;righeter gjorde dock att Sverige f&#246;rlorade kolonin till <strong>Nederl&#228;nderna</strong> p&#229; 1650-talet. Men Sverige gjorde fler f&#246;rs&#246;k.</p><h3>Cabo Corso</h3><p>&#197;r 1645 fick <strong>Louis De Geer</strong>, en vallonsk k&#246;pman och industrimagnat som bosatt sig i Sverige, id&#233;n om att etablera en afrikansk koloni. Han hade siktet inst&#228;llt p&#229; <strong>Guldkusten</strong> &#8211; ett omr&#229;de i nuvarande <strong>Ghana</strong> som var extremt rikt p&#229; guld &#8211; och s&#246;kte audiens hos <strong>drottning Kristina</strong>, med f&#246;rhoppning om att uppr&#228;tta kolonin under svensk flagg.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic" width="1360" height="1595" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1595,&quot;width&quot;:1360,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:412494,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/175742491?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!euNA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff53edf42-1364-42f1-a6e5-0574dcdcb6f7_1360x1595.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Portr&#228;tt av Louis De Geer av  David Beck, cirka 1650. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Den svenska kronan dr&#246;jde med att ge besked, och &#229;ret efter skickade De Geer d&#228;rf&#246;r sj&#228;lv iv&#228;g ett handelsfartyg till kusten utanf&#246;r det som idag &#228;r <strong>Nigeria</strong>. D&#228;r k&#246;pte bes&#228;ttningen elfenben och mer &#228;n tv&#229;hundra f&#246;rslavade afrikaner. Fartygets n&#228;sta stopp gjordes i <strong>Karibien</strong>, d&#228;r de &#246;verlevande slavarna s&#229;ldes i utbyte mot socker och tobak, exotiska varor i 1600-talets Sverige.</p><p>Fartygets &#229;terkomst till G&#246;teborg 1647 visade att handeln var ekonomiskt g&#229;ngbar. Ombord fanns dessutom fyra afrikanska f&#246;rslavade, som sk&#228;nktes till rikskanslern <strong>Axel Oxenstierna</strong>.</p><p>F&#246;r den svenska kronan blev potentialen i slavhandeln uppenbar. &#197;r 1649, efter tv&#229; ytterligare f&#228;rder med andra skepp, fick De Geer slutligen till&#229;telse av drottning Kristina att forma ett svenskt handelskompani.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic" width="1222" height="864" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yeuu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0e5358b-dae7-45ee-a432-53ee3f945f8c_1222x864.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration av Fort Karlsborg fr&#229;n tidskriften <em>Historiskt bibliotek</em>. Av Carl Silfverstolpe (1879).</figcaption></figure></div><p><strong>Svenska Afrikakompaniet</strong> bildades samma &#229;r och 1650 uppr&#228;ttades kolonin <strong>Cabo Corso</strong> i det som idag &#228;r den ghananska staden <strong>Cape Coast</strong>. Strax d&#228;refter tog svenskarna &#246;ver en holl&#228;ndsk handelsstation som de byggde om till ett fort och d&#246;pte till <strong>Karlsborg</strong>, efter den svenske tronarvingen och drottning Kristinas eftertr&#228;dare <strong>Karl X Gustav</strong>. Sverige stod nu redo att ge sig in i slavhandeln p&#229; riktigt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4Kpz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5ba0e40-995b-4078-b0b8-b809686d349d_1600x1063.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4Kpz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5ba0e40-995b-4078-b0b8-b809686d349d_1600x1063.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4Kpz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5ba0e40-995b-4078-b0b8-b809686d349d_1600x1063.heic 848w, 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fort Karlsborg, eller Cape Coast Castle som det heter idag. </figcaption></figure></div><p>De europeiska stormakterna bevakade dock sina intressen p&#229; Atlanten och st&#228;ngde ute Sverige, som, efter att ha f&#246;rlorat Nya Sverige-besittningen, saknade en koloni i Amerika. Det gjorde att svenskarna inte hade en tydlig marknad f&#246;r de f&#246;rslavade som skeppades fr&#229;n Cabo Corso och d&#228;rf&#246;r inte kunde f&#229; till den s&#229; lukrativa triangelhandeleffekten.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic" width="1024" height="654" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCH8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F576db21c-ab0f-4eac-8e41-d345515ba390_1024x654.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar var de f&#246;rslavade togs ifr&#229;n och vart de skeppades. Fr&#229;n SlaveVoyages.org.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I korta drag gick triangeln ut p&#229; att europeiska fartyg fulla av vapen, tyger och metaller seglade mot V&#228;st- och Centralafrika. D&#228;r byttes varorna mot f&#246;rslavade afrikaner som skeppades mot Nord- och Sydamerika d&#228;r de sattes i arbete. Det som de f&#246;rslavade producerade &#8211; socker, tobak, rom, bomull, etcetera &#8211; skickades sedan till Europa. Men utan en egen koloni i den nya v&#228;rlden uteblev effekten f&#246;r svensk del.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sveriges-roll-i-den-transatlantiska?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Svenska Afrikakompaniet hittade l&#246;sningen p&#229; en &#246; utanf&#246;r <strong>Gabons</strong> kust, idag k&#228;nd som <strong>S&#227;o Tom&#233; och Pr&#237;ncipe</strong>. P&#229; 1650-talet styrdes &#246;n av portugiserna och t&#228;cktes av sockerplantage i behov av nya slavar. Sverige fann sin handelspartner och under de kommande &#229;ren skeppades Karlsborgs f&#246;rslavade dit i utbyte mot bland annat socker. &#197;r 1657 sl&#246;ts dessutom ett kontrakt som innebar att Afrikakompaniet skulle skeppa mellan fem- och sexhundra slavar till den holl&#228;ndska v&#228;stindiska kolonin <strong>Cura&#231;ao</strong>.</p><p>Berusade p&#229; tanken om slavhandelns rikedomar konkurrerade flera europeiska nationer om slavforten l&#228;ngs Afrikas v&#228;stra kust &#8211; inklusive Karlsborg. F&#228;stningen bytte &#228;gare flera g&#229;nger och var i h&#228;nderna p&#229; s&#229;v&#228;l danskar som holl&#228;ndare och engelsm&#228;n. Sverige lyckades bara beh&#229;lla fortet i 13 &#229;r och tvingades bort fr&#229;n omr&#229;det 1663.</p><h3><strong>Blodmetaller</strong></h3><p>Trots att Sverige sl&#228;ngts ut ur Cabo Corso fanns fortfarande pengar att tj&#228;na p&#229; slavhandeln. Under 1700-talet blev Sverige Europas fr&#228;msta export&#246;r av s&#229; kallat voyagej&#228;rn &#8211; st&#229;ngj&#228;rn som tillverkats efter ett s&#228;rskilt m&#229;tt, var av specifik vikt och som hade f&#246;rsetts med en m&#228;rkning.</p><p>Traditionen av j&#228;rntillverkning str&#228;cker sig flera tusen &#229;r tillbaka i tiden i V&#228;st- och Centralafrika, s&#229; de afrikanska samh&#228;llen och kungad&#246;men som europ&#233;erna var i kontakt med under den transatlantiska handeln hade tillg&#229;ng till egna j&#228;rnverktyg och -vapen.</p><p>Men innovationer inom den europeiska j&#228;rnindustrin hade &#246;kat produktionstakten i Europa, vilket gjorde det attraktivare f&#246;r afrikanska riken att importera j&#228;rnet d&#228;rifr&#229;n. Den st&#246;rre tillg&#229;ngen gjorde att voyagej&#228;rn kom att fungera som en slags valuta i handeln med f&#246;rslavade.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic" width="559" height="445" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JHo-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffddaccc5-50e0-4661-9735-1118fb49037d_559x445.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p></p><p>Men &#228;ven annat svenskt j&#228;rn efterfr&#229;gades, som anv&#228;ndes f&#246;r att exempelvis producera gev&#228;rspipor och bojorna som h&#246;ll slavarna f&#229;ngna. <strong>Storbritannien</strong> var den fr&#228;msta k&#246;paren av det svenska j&#228;rnet &#8211; av de 25 000 ton landet importerade p&#229; 1730-talet kom 20 000 fr&#229;n Sverige &#8211; och exporten blev en oerh&#246;rt viktig motor i Sveriges v&#228;xande ekonomi.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic" width="1200" height="921" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Skc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F32a8326b-687c-4fa1-923b-727291441ab0_1200x921.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Oljem&#229;lning som f&#246;rest&#228;ller Saint-Barth&#233;lemy. Finns p&#229; Sj&#246;historiska museet i Stockholm.</figcaption></figure></div><h3>Saint-Barth&#233;lemy</h3><p>Det kortvariga och misslyckade kolonialprojektet Cabo Corso avskr&#228;ckte inte Sverige fr&#229;n att g&#246;ra ett nytt f&#246;rs&#246;k drygt hundra &#229;r senare, denna g&#229;ng p&#229; den lilla karibiska &#246;n <strong>Saint-Barth&#233;lemy</strong>. &#214;n hade kolonialiserats av <strong>Frankrike</strong> 1648, men 1784 gick fransm&#228;nnen med p&#229; att l&#229;ta Sverige ta &#246;ver styret i utbyte mot nederlagsr&#228;tt i G&#246;teborg.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic" width="900" height="624" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:624,&quot;width&quot;:900,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:141647,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/175742491?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kb8Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb02b6794-52b2-4e98-9e71-4242db1ff0bc_900x624.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta f&#246;rest&#228;llande Saint-Barth&#233;lemy &#229;r 1801. Originalet hittas i John Carter Brown Library p&#229; Brown University i Providence, Rhode Island.</figcaption></figure></div><p>D&#229; Saint-Barth&#233;lemy i princip saknade naturtillg&#229;ngar och b&#246;rdig jord som l&#228;mpade sig f&#246;r plantager, togs beslutet att g&#246;ra om &#246;n till en frihamn. I en tid d&#229; det amerikanska frihetskriget just hade avslutats men nya sj&#246;slag var att v&#228;nta hade den h&#228;r sortens neutrala handelsnav stor potential att bli lukrativa.</p><p>N&#228;r k&#246;pet gick igenom bodde mellan 700 och 800 personer p&#229; &#246;n. Ungef&#228;r en tredjedel var f&#246;rslavade svarta, resten bestod av fria vita, framf&#246;r allt fransm&#228;n.</p><p>Slavhandeln s&#229;gs som en sj&#228;lvklar del av kolonins fortsatta verksamhet. I 1790 &#229;rs tulltaxa slogs det fast att det var avgiftsfritt att f&#246;ra in f&#246;rslavade till &#246;n: </p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Fri inf&#246;rsel och handel af svarta slafvar eller s&#229; kallade nya negrer fr&#229;n Africa f&#246;runnas alla nationer utan att erl&#228;gga n&#229;gon avgift vid utlossandet.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>D&#228;remot togs en tullavgift ut vid exporten av de f&#246;rslavade. I ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att stimulera den svenska slavhandeln beh&#246;vde svenska fartyg som importerade f&#246;rslavade bara betala halva avgiften. Genom ett privilegiebrev utf&#228;rdat av kung <strong>Gustav III</strong> fick <strong>Svenska V&#228;stindiska Kompaniet </strong>r&#228;tten att bedriva all handel.</p><p>Kort efter att de f&#246;rsta svenskarna anl&#228;nt till Saint-Barth&#233;lemy &#8211; till en b&#246;rjan handelsm&#228;n, sedan tj&#228;nstem&#228;n och ett litet f&#246;rband soldater &#8211; identifierades en vik p&#229; &#246;ns v&#228;stra delar som en l&#228;mplig plats att uppr&#228;tta en stad runt. B&#229;de de fria vita och slavbefolkningen rekryterades f&#246;r att anl&#228;gga en hamn och bygga hus och v&#228;gar. Staden d&#246;ptes till <strong>Gustavia</strong>, efter den svenske kungen.</p><p>Statusen som frihamn lockade m&#228;ngder av m&#228;nniskor till Gustavia, s&#228;rskilt efter utbrottet av de franska revolutionskrigen &#229;r 1792. Flera europeiska stormakter drogs in i en milit&#228;r konflikt som kom att vara i ett decennium, och en st&#246;rre del av den v&#228;stindiska handeln b&#246;rjade g&#229; via det neutrala Saint-Barth&#233;lemy. &#197;r 1800 hade Gustavia vuxit till femtusen inv&#229;nare och blev d&#228;rmed en av de folkrikaste st&#228;derna inom det svenska riket.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic" width="286" height="450" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:450,&quot;width&quot;:286,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:34090,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/175742491?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-COX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F885da647-ff8f-4e14-bd27-ec33f69cbfaa_286x450.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">En Gustav Ekerman utannonserar en slavauktion i lokaltidningen The Report of St. Bartholomew, den 30 december 1816. Auktioner var den vanligaste f&#246;rs&#228;ljningsmetoden av slavar p&#229; Saint-Barth&#233;lemy. Originalfoto hittas p&#229; Uppsala universitetsbibliotek.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Situationen f&#246;r Saint-Barth&#233;lemys f&#246;rslavade f&#246;rb&#228;ttrades inte efter Sveriges int&#229;g. 1787 inf&#246;rdes<em> Code Noir</em>, som delade upp befolkningen i tre grupper: vita, f&#246;rslavade och &#8221;fria kul&#246;rta&#8221; &#8211; svarta som frigjorts eller f&#246;tts av fria m&#246;drar och som till&#228;ts &#228;ga land men saknade politiskt inflytande. D&#229; &#8221;fria kul&#246;rta&#8221; utg&#229;r fr&#229;n vithet som norm brukar gruppen idag ist&#228;llet omn&#228;mnas som &#8221;fria svarta&#8221;.</p><p>Lagstiftningen var med n&#229;gra f&#229; justeringar en kopia av en fransk f&#246;rlaga och sanktionerades av H&#246;gsta domstolen i Stockholm. Den slog bland annat fast hur f&#246;rslavade skulle bestraffas, vilka tider p&#229; dygnet de fick r&#246;ra sig och hur de fick umg&#229;s. Samtidigt fortsatte nya f&#246;rslavade att importeras, b&#229;de fr&#229;n Afrika och fr&#229;n andra karibiska &#246;ar.</p><p>Som redan frihetsber&#246;vade och otill&#229;tna att &#228;ga n&#229;got var b&#246;ter, straffarbete och f&#228;ngelse uteslutet som straffmetoder f&#246;r slavarna. D&#228;rf&#246;r f&#246;redrogs kroppsbestraffning. Den vanligaste metoden var rapp med den s&#229; kallade negerpiskan. Offret, med ansiktet mot marken, sp&#228;ndes d&#229; upp mellan fyra p&#229;lar f&#246;r att motta piskrappen med ryggen. Var offret en gravid kvinna gr&#228;vdes en grop i marken d&#228;r magen fick plats, f&#246;r att &#8221;skydda&#8221; barnet. Men &#228;ven br&#228;nnm&#228;rkning, halsj&#228;rn och d&#246;dsstraff f&#246;rekom.</p><p>Det var vanligt att &#246;ns vita m&#228;n hade svarta kvinnor som konkubiner. De mixade barn som sedan f&#246;ddes blev slavar, s&#229;vida papporna inte valde att frige dem. Fria svartas frihet var villkorad och de riskerade att f&#246;rslavas vid allvarliga brott, s&#229;som att h&#228;rb&#228;rgera f&#246;rslavade. Code Noir-lagen dikterade &#228;ven att de exempelvis inte fick b&#228;ra vapen, ut&#246;va medicin eller samlas f&#246;r br&#246;llop eller fest utan den svenske milit&#228;rkommendantens till&#229;telse. De m&#229;, i j&#228;mf&#246;relse med slavarna, ha varit fria men de var i allra h&#246;gsta grad diskriminerade.</p><p>Med en &#246;kad handel och v&#228;xande befolkning var Saint-Barth&#233;lemys framtidsutsikter ljusa. Men utvecklingar p&#229; v&#228;rldsarenan gjorde snart kolonin till en huvudv&#228;rk f&#246;r den svenska staten. En stor anledning var slutet p&#229; <strong>Napoleonkrigen</strong> samt <strong>USA:s</strong> krig mot Storbritannien &#229;r 1815. Att vara en neutral frihamn i tider av fred var inte lika v&#228;rdefullt.</p><p>Under de kommande decennierna drabbades &#246;n dessutom av flera orkaner och feberpandemier, med hundratals d&#246;dsfall och &#246;delagda byggnader som f&#246;ljd. Saint-Barth&#233;lemy var t&#228;nkt att fylla den svenska statskassan och vara en k&#228;lla till export av exotiska lyxprodukter men blev tv&#228;rtom en b&#246;rda f&#246;r Sveriges ekonomi.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Under 1790-talet hade antislaverir&#246;relsen f&#229;tt fart i Storbritannien. Men trots att stormakten f&#246;rbj&#246;d slavhandel &#8211; om &#228;n inte slaveri &#8211; &#229;r 1807 fortsatte handeln med m&#228;nniskor p&#229; Saint-Barth&#233;lemy.</p><p>Och Sverige f&#246;rs&#246;kte samtidigt skaffa sig nya karibiska kolonier. Ett exempel var <strong>Guadelope</strong>, en tidigare fransk koloni, som hade enormt mycket st&#246;rre potential f&#246;r produktion av socker och andra kolonialvanor. Sverige fick ta &#246;ver &#246;n 1813, men p&#229; grund av f&#246;rhandlingar i samband med Napoleonkrigens avslut tvingades Sverige l&#228;mna tillbaka den efter bara ett drygt &#229;r.</p><p>Det var f&#246;rst 1845, efter decennier av p&#229;tryckningar fr&#229;n Storbritannien, som Sverige beslutade sig f&#246;r att helt avskaffa slaveriet. Men innan det kunde ske var slav&#228;garna tvungna att kompenseras f&#246;r sina f&#246;rluster. Det tog tv&#229; &#229;r f&#246;r den svenska staten att samla ihop tillr&#228;ckligt med pengar. Den 9 oktober 1847 var processen f&#228;rdig och &#246;ns samtliga slavar frik&#246;ptes. M&#229;nga av dem tros ha l&#228;mnat Saint-Barth&#233;lemy.</p><p>Att Sverige stod f&#246;r notan var inte popul&#228;rt hos alla. I ett anf&#246;rande inf&#246;r adelsst&#229;ndet i Riddarhuset i Stockholm beklagade sig greve Johan August Anckarsv&#228;rd &#246;ver beslutet:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;St&#228;nderna hafva beviljat hundra tusentals riksdaler till frik&#246;pandet af svarta slafvar p&#229; Barthelemy, men aldrig har man &#246;mmat f&#246;r sina hvita, skattdragande br&#246;ders &#246;de h&#228;r hemma.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Talet citerades i en artikel publicerad i <em>Aftonbladet </em>den 7 december 1847.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic" width="414" height="231" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/dbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:231,&quot;width&quot;:414,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:39526,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/175742491?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K2dP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbee55a3-35b5-4c3b-82de-4e7e84af9693_414x231.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Utdrag ur Greve Johan August Anckarsv&#228;rd anf&#246;rande i adelsst&#229;ndet i Riddarhuset. Artikel fr&#229;n Aftonbladet den 7 december 1847, ungef&#228;r tv&#229; m&#229;nader efter att Sverige frik&#246;pt Saint-Barth&#233;lemys slavar.</figcaption></figure></div><p>De kommande &#229;ren pr&#228;glades &#246;n av fattigdom &#8211; svenska offentliga byggnader f&#246;rf&#246;ll och inv&#229;nare utvandrade. Kolonin bl&#246;dde pengar och Sverige f&#246;rs&#246;kte hitta n&#229;gon som ville ta &#246;ver den. Den 8 mars 1877 publicerade <em>G&#246;teborgs Handels- och Sj&#246;farts-Tidning </em>en artikel som n&#228;mner Hugo Nisbeth, en svensk publicist som nyligen bes&#246;kt Saint-Barth&#233;lemy p&#229; uppdrag av finansdepartementet. V&#228;l p&#229; plats konstaterade han att vanstyre &#228;gt rum medan guvern&#246;rerna levt som &#8221;f&#246;rn&#228;me herrar&#8221;. Artikeln argumenterade f&#246;r vilka reformer som beh&#246;vde genomf&#246;ras f&#246;r att undvika &#246;ns status som &#8221;d&#246;ende koloni&#8221; och g&#246;ra den till en &#8221;rik och h&#228;rlig lustg&#229;rd&#8221;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic" width="376" height="555" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:555,&quot;width&quot;:376,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:69631,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/175742491?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aRtx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5b110d91-7211-4b18-9a0b-43f2f8625f2c_376x555.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Artikel om att Hugo Nisbeths bes&#246;k p&#229; Saint-Barth&#233;lemy. Fr&#229;n G&#246;teborgs Handels- och Sj&#246;fartstidning, den 8 mars 1877, &#229;ret innan Sverige s&#229;lde kolonin.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Sverige lyckades aldrig v&#228;nda utvecklingen p&#229; Saint-Barth&#233;lemy. En &#246;verenskommelse n&#229;ddes med Frankrike &#229;r 1877, &#246;ns ursprungliga kolonialmakt, om att ta tillbaka den. Bara en folkomr&#246;stning stod i v&#228;gen. Av &#246;ns &#246;ver tv&#229;tusen inv&#229;nare deltog drygt trehundrafemtio personer, och bara en av dem r&#246;stade f&#246;r att &#246;n skulle forts&#228;tta tillh&#246;ra Sverige. Den 16 mars 1878 skedde den officiella &#246;verl&#228;mningen och Sveriges &#228;ventyr som formell kolonialmakt var &#246;ver.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic" width="1456" height="2195" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!PSZr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6ad56c7-a2ac-4a2a-be58-0a99ac65cc39_1786x2693.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fredrik Thomassons <em>Svarta Saint-Barth&#233;lemy: M&#228;nnisko&#246;den i en svensk koloni 1785-1847</em>, ett m&#229;ste f&#246;r den som ville s&#228;tta sig in i hur livet var f&#246;r de f&#246;rslavade p&#229; den svenska kolonin. </figcaption></figure></div><h3>Dubbel kolonial gl&#246;mska</h3><p>Sverige blev aldrig en stor spelare i det transatlantiska slaveriet och stod bara f&#246;r en br&#229;kdel av den totala handeln. Men mot bakgrund av bilden av Sverige som en nation helt utan skuld &#228;r det &#228;nd&#229; v&#228;rt att notera att det fanns en riktig ambition om att handla med fler f&#246;rslavade. Eller som historikern <strong>Fredrik Thomasson </strong>skriver i sin hyllade bok <em>Svarta Saint-Barth&#233;lemy: M&#228;nnisko&#246;den i en svensk koloni 1785-1847</em>:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Det som r&#228;ddade Sverige fr&#229;n att medverka i slaveriets allra v&#228;rsta brott var dess misslyckande att delta i plantagejordbrukets av profithunger drivna grymhet. Sveriges ambition var dock just att delta i plantageekonomin och f&#246;rs&#246;ken att erh&#229;lla ytterligare kolonier fortsatte in p&#229; 1800-talet. N&#228;r Sverige tilldelades Guadeloupe av Storbritannien 1813 var entusiasmen stor, och hade Guadeloupe f&#246;rblivit svenskt hade det svenska slaveriet gestaltat sig annorlunda&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Trots att framsteg har skett argumenterar Thomasson f&#246;r att det &#228;n idag r&#229;der en dubbel kolonial gl&#246;mska. Synen p&#229; Sveriges roll som kolonialmakt i Afrika och Karibien pr&#228;glas av <em>&#8221;en minnesf&#246;rlust n&#228;r det g&#228;ller koloniala missg&#228;rningar mot den svarta befolkningen &#8211; men ocks&#229; av den tid d&#229; Sverige trots sina ambitioner misslyckades med att bli en betydande kolonialmakt.&#8221;</em></p><p>D&#228;rf&#246;r &#228;r det fortsatt viktigt att belysa den 9 oktober och verka f&#246;r inr&#228;ttandet av en officiell minnesdag.</p><div><hr></div><h3><strong>L&#228;s mer:</strong></h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>Den svenska kolonin S:t Barth&#233;lemy och V&#228;stindiska kompaniet fram till 1796 </em>av Ingegerd Hildebrand (1951)</p><p><em>&#214;n som Sverige s&#229;lde </em>av Bengt Sj&#246;gren (1966)</p><p><em>Det kungliga svenska slaveriet </em>av G&#246;ran Skytte (1985)</p><p><em>Africans in New Sweden: The Untold Story</em> av Abdullah R. Muhammad (2013)</p><p><em>Svarta Saint-Barth&#233;lemy: M&#228;nnisko&#246;den i en svensk koloni 1785-1847 </em>av Fredrik Thomasson (2022)</p><p><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;Foreign Markets for Swedish Iron in the 18th Century&#8221; av Karl-Gustaf Hildebrand i <em>Scandinavian Economic History Review </em>(vol. 6, nr 1, 1958)</p><p>&#8221;32 piskrapp vid quatre piquets. Svensk r&#228;ttvisa och slavlagar p&#229; Saint Barth&#233;lemy&#8221; av Fredrik Thomasson i <em>Historiel&#228;rarnas f&#246;renings &#229;rsskrift </em>(2013)</p><p>&#8221;&#8217;Voyage Iron&#8217;: An Atlantic Slave Trade Currency, its European Origins, and West African Impact&#8221; av Chris Evans och G&#246;ran Ryd&#233;n i <em>Past &amp; Present </em>(vol. 239, nr 1, 2018)</p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>Artikel utan rubrik p&#229; sidan 2 i <em>G&#246;teborgs Handels- och Sj&#246;farts-Tidning </em>(8 mars 1877)</p><p>&#8221;Det svenska slavj&#228;rnet&#8221; av Jan L&#246;nn f&#246;r <em>Dagens Nyheter </em>(13 november 2007)</p><p>&#8221;Sveriges slavhistoria avsl&#246;jad&#8221; av Niklas Zachrisson f&#246;r svt.se (7 oktober 2013)</p><p>&#8221;Den svenska slavhandelns fader&#8221; av Mats Granberg f&#246;r <em>Norrk&#246;pings Tidningar </em>(17 juli 2014)</p><p>&#8221;Slavhandeln lyfte Sverige&#8221; av Maria Ripenberg f&#246;r <em>Upsala Nya Tidning </em>(6 oktober 2014)</p><p>&#8221;Sveriges omstridda strategi &#8211; i avskaffandet av slavhandeln&#8221; av Martin Schibbye f&#246;r <em>Blankspot </em>(25 juni 2020)</p><p><strong>&#214;vrigt:</strong></p><p>&#8220;Handelskompanier och kompanihandel: Svenska Afrikakompaniet 1649&#8211;1663: En studie i feodal handel&#8221; av Gy&#246;rgy Nov&#225;ky (1990)</p><p>&#8221;N&#228;r Sverige skulle bli kolonialmakt&#8221; av Hans Norman f&#246;r <em>Popul&#228;r Historia </em>(14 mars 2001, h&#228;mtad 27 augusti 2021)</p><p>&#8221;Svensk handel med slavar 1784&#8211;1847. Varf&#246;r inf&#246;rdes och avskaffades slaveriet p&#229; den svenska kolonin S:t Barth&#233;lemy&#8221; av Martin Schibbye vid Stockholms universitet (2007)</p><p>&#8221;Svenska j&#228;rn- och st&#229;lindustrins historia&#8221; av Jernkontoret (21 november 2018, h&#228;mtad 27 augusti 2021)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Assata Shakur (1947-2025)]]></title><description><![CDATA[Frihet i exil]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/assata-shakur-1947-2025</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/assata-shakur-1947-2025</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 27 Sep 2025 09:17:27 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic" width="640" height="873" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TtMH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2634ee54-c785-4158-923f-4fe423f61388_640x873.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Assata Shakur.</figcaption></figure></div><p><strong>Joanne Deborah Byron </strong>f&#246;ddes i New York 1947 och tillbringade delar av sin uppv&#228;xt i det segregerade North Carolina. Hon gick senare p&#229; community college, motsvarande folkh&#246;gskola, p&#229; Manhattan d&#228;r hon hamnade i aktivistiska sammanhang och l&#228;rde sig om b&#229;de socialism och internationella sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighetskamper.</p><p>Byron lockades av id&#233;n att kampen mot rasism &#228;r ineffektiv om kapitalismen inte samtidigt bek&#228;mpas. Men hon ansl&#246;t inte till de socialistiska grupper hon kom i kontakt med, fr&#228;mst f&#246;r att hon irriterade sig p&#229; att de tenderade att ha vita &#228;ldre medlemmar som sj&#228;lvbel&#229;tet trodde sig ha alla svar p&#229; hur svarta amerikaner skulle n&#229; frig&#246;relse.</p><p>Efter folkh&#246;gskolan b&#246;rjade Byron p&#229; City College of New York d&#228;r hon tr&#228;ffade <strong>Louis Chesimard</strong>, en annan elev som delade hennes politiska och revolution&#228;ra engagemang. De gifte sig 1967, men relationen blev kortvarig. JoAnne Chesimard, som hon nu hette, tillbringade all sin tid i skolan eller med att delta i olika politiska m&#246;ten och demonstrationer. Hennes man, som hade hoppats att hon skulle vara en traditionell hemmafru, fick snopet acceptera att det enda hon m&#228;ktade med i k&#246;ket var att koka spaghetti. Paret skilde sig efter drygt ett &#229;r.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EL2-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafb5bcc8-3bb8-4661-a508-8f20596bb679_598x891.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EL2-!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafb5bcc8-3bb8-4661-a508-8f20596bb679_598x891.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EL2-!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafb5bcc8-3bb8-4661-a508-8f20596bb679_598x891.heic 848w, 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pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Assata Shakur.</figcaption></figure></div><p>JoAnne Chesimard, fri fr&#229;n &#228;ktenskapet, best&#228;mde sig d&#228;refter f&#246;r att ta sig till Oakland i Kalifornien, staden d&#228;r medborgarr&#228;ttsorganisationen <strong>Black Panthers </strong>hade grundats ett par &#229;r tidigare och som var ett nav f&#246;r radikala id&#233;er.</p><p>Chesimard s&#246;kte upp grupper som <strong>Red Guard Party</strong>, unga kinesamerikaner som bland annat k&#228;mpade mot de hemska f&#246;rh&#229;llandena i Chinatown i San Francisco, och <strong>Brown Berets</strong>, en chicanoorganisation som var emot Vietnamkriget, engagerade sig i kampen mot polisbrutalitet och protesterade f&#246;r b&#246;nders r&#228;ttigheter.</p><p>Att sammankoppla kamper &#246;ver &#8221;rasgr&#228;nserna&#8221;, och till och med hitta ber&#246;ringspunkter med frig&#246;relser&#246;relser i Afrika, Sydamerika och Asien, var p&#229; tapeten f&#246;r den amerikanska medborgarr&#228;ttsr&#246;relsen i slutet p&#229; sextiotalet. Och f&#246;r Chesimard var det sj&#228;lvklart att leta s&#228;tt att samarbeta p&#229;.</p><h3>Fr&#229;n Black Panthers till Black Liberation Army</h3><p>Men den viktigaste gruppen f&#246;r JoAnne Chesimard att komma i kontakt med var alltj&#228;mt Black Panthers, vars politik, kompromissl&#246;sa retorik och i&#246;gonfallande mode inspirerade henne. Hon bes&#246;kte organisationens h&#246;gkvarter, l&#228;rde k&#228;nna flera av medlemmarna och utf&#246;rde diverse str&#246;jobb f&#246;r dem. Men hon blev inte medlem.</p><p>Det f&#246;r&#228;ndrades i takt med att hon f&#246;ljde de amerikanska myndigheternas uppm&#228;rksammade f&#246;rs&#246;k att f&#228;ngsla Black Panthers-medlemmen <strong>Angela Davis</strong> i b&#246;rjan p&#229; sjuttiotalet. Chesimard lovade sig sj&#228;lv att hon skulle ansluta till Black Panthers Harlemfilial n&#228;r hon kom hem till New York.</p><p>Runt samma tid b&#246;rjade JoAnne Chesimard kalla sig <strong>Assata Shakur</strong>, ett namn hon som sj&#228;lvidentifierad afrikansk kvinna k&#228;nde b&#228;ttre representerade henne. Hennes f&#246;rsta jobb som Black Panthers-medlem var p&#229; organisationens v&#229;rdavdelning. D&#228;r bokade hon in tandl&#228;karunders&#246;kningar, l&#228;rde ut f&#246;rsta hj&#228;lpen och informerade om sicklecellanemi.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Hon jobbade senare med organisationens ber&#246;mda frukostprogram f&#246;r samh&#228;llenas unga ekonomiskt utsatta skolelever. Som del av programmet samlades Black Panthers-medlemmar i innerst&#228;dernas kyrkor och medborgarlokaler tidigt om morgnarna f&#246;r att laga mat, s&#229; att omr&#229;denas fattiga barn slapp g&#229; till skolan hungriga.</p><p>Med tiden kom dock Shakur att bli mer och mer missn&#246;jd med Black Panthers ledning och inriktning. Hon upplevde att det saknades utrymme f&#246;r konstruktiv kritik och att organisationen pr&#228;glades av bristande rutiner, problem som f&#246;rv&#228;rrades av den paranoia som tog rot bland medlemmarna som ett resultat av <strong>FBI:s</strong> infiltrering och s&#246;ndringstaktiker. FBI s&#229;g Black Panthers som en samh&#228;llshotande inhemsk terrororganisation, och som del av det olagliga och d&#229; &#228;nnu ok&#228;nda <strong>COINTELPRO</strong>-programmet f&#246;rs&#246;kte man s&#246;ndra och sabotera gruppen.</p><p>Men Chesimard besv&#228;rades ocks&#229; av Black Panther-r&#246;relsens manschauvinism och upplevde att kvinnor rutinm&#228;ssigt tilldelades underordnade roller.</p><p>1971 hoppade hon av och ansl&#246;t till <strong>Black Liberation Army</strong> (<strong>BLA</strong>), en grupp vars storlek, v&#229;ldskapital och betydelse &#228;r omstridd. Polisen st&#228;mplade den som en bev&#228;pnad urban gerillar&#246;relse och ibland som en regelr&#228;tt terrorsekt vars m&#229;l var att m&#246;rda poliser.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic" width="640" height="827" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:827,&quot;width&quot;:640,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:117005,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/174675399?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JXdP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F79db469d-f1eb-4819-92c3-03d29523c65c_640x827.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Black Liberation Army-affisch fr&#229;n 1981.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Myndigheterna utm&#229;lade Assata Shakur som Black Liberation Armys &#8221;sj&#228;l&#8221; och i medierna kopplades gruppen till en rad mord. De beskylldes &#228;ven f&#246;r att finansiera sin organisation genom bankr&#229;n.</p><p>Sj&#228;lv beskrev Shakur BLA som en folkr&#246;relse skapad som en reaktion p&#229; f&#246;rtrycket av svarta m&#228;nniskor, i vilken man inte r&#228;ddes sj&#228;lvf&#246;rsvar. Hon menade att de endast s&#246;kte svartas frihet och sj&#228;lvbest&#228;mmande. Enligt Shakur var BLA inte ens en formell organisation, utan ett l&#246;st sammansatt n&#228;tverk av svarta revolution&#228;rer. Hon h&#228;vdade att r&#246;relsen beskylldes f&#246;r alla m&#246;jliga brott som en del av en medial svartm&#229;lningskampanj.</p><p>Det &#228;r &#228;n idag inte helt kartlagt hur Black Liberation Army startades. Troligtvis fick r&#246;relsen tillskott av nya medlemmar som en f&#246;ljd av FBI:s motarbetande av Black Panthers. I sitt manifest fr&#229;n 1975, sedan BLA gjort ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att centralisera sin organisation, angav gruppen antikapitalism, antiimperialism, antirasism och antisexism som r&#246;relsens ledord.</p><h3>Skjutningen vid New Jersey Turnpike</h3><p>Natten till den 2 maj 1973 &#229;kte Assata Shakur bil tillsammans med tv&#229; andra BLA-medlemmar,<strong> Zayd Shakur </strong>och <strong>Sundiata Acoli</strong>, l&#228;ngs en motorv&#228;g i New Jersey. Bilen stoppades av tv&#229; delstatspoliser f&#246;r fortk&#246;rning. Versionerna av vad som h&#228;nde sedan g&#229;r is&#228;r.</p><p>Klart &#228;r att Zayd Shakur och den ena polisen d&#246;dades i skottlossningen som utbr&#246;t. Assata Shakur och den andra polisen skottskadades. I kaoset flydde Assata Shakur men tillf&#229;ngatogs efter trettio minuter, medan Sundiata Acoli var p&#229; flykt i trettiosex timmar innan &#228;ven han greps efter ett massivt p&#229;drag.</p><p>Assata Shakur f&#246;rdes till sjukhus i kritiskt tillst&#229;nd och f&#246;rh&#246;rdes fr&#229;n sjukhuss&#228;ngen. Hon vidh&#246;ll att hon inte var den som hade skjutit. Enligt Shakurs vittnesm&#229;l utsattes hon f&#246;r regelbunden misshandel av poliserna som vaktade henne s&#229; fort sjukhuspersonalen l&#228;mnade rummet, n&#229;got poliserna sj&#228;lva tillbakavisade. Hon flyttades d&#228;refter till h&#228;ktet.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/assata-shakur-1947-2025?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/assata-shakur-1947-2025?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Ivriga att neutralisera en av Black Liberation Armys frontfigurer anklagade staten Shakur f&#246;r en m&#228;ngd brott under de kommande &#229;ren, allt fr&#229;n bank- och personr&#229;n till kidnappning och mord. Sju av fallen gick till r&#228;tteg&#229;ng och i sex av dem undgick hon straff, antingen genom att frik&#228;nnas, brist p&#229; bevis eller p&#229; grund av rena teknikaliteter.</p><p>Men i det sjunde fallet s&#229;g staten sin chans. Trots att Sundiata Acoli, den andra BLA-medlemmen som &#246;verlevt skottlossningen, redan d&#246;mts f&#246;r mordet p&#229; delstatspolisen argumenterade &#229;klagaren f&#246;r att Assata Shakurs n&#228;rvaro under brottet skulle klassas som medhj&#228;lp till mord, oavsett om det var hon som hade skjutit eller inte. I februari 1977 inleddes den nio veckor l&#229;nga och medialt uppm&#228;rksammade r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xQR_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbce409b6-63c9-40ca-b708-b65d00dd940b_750x609.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xQR_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbce409b6-63c9-40ca-b708-b65d00dd940b_750x609.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xQR_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbce409b6-63c9-40ca-b708-b65d00dd940b_750x609.heic 848w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Assata Shakur, av r&#228;tteg&#229;ngstecknaren Ida Libby Dengrove.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Vittnesm&#229;len var motstridiga. Shakur h&#228;vdade att hon varken hade skjutit poliserna eller ens hanterat ett vapen, utan haft armarna i luften n&#228;r hon sj&#228;lv sk&#246;ts av polisen. Den &#246;verlevande polisen p&#229;stod i sin tur att Shakur varit den f&#246;rsta att avlossa skott.</p><p>Shakurs advokater kallade en neurolog och en patolog, som b&#229;da vittnade om att hennes skador tydde p&#229; att hon hade haft h&#228;nderna i luften n&#228;r hon sk&#246;ts. Alla femton jurymedlemmar var vita amerikaner och fem av dem hade personliga relationer till andra delstatspoliser. Den 25 mars 1977 d&#246;mdes hon till livstids f&#228;ngelse f&#246;r mordet.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNZK!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f9728ff-9404-44fe-944e-8baa1ac3e2d9_900x720.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNZK!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f9728ff-9404-44fe-944e-8baa1ac3e2d9_900x720.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNZK!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f9728ff-9404-44fe-944e-8baa1ac3e2d9_900x720.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNZK!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f9728ff-9404-44fe-944e-8baa1ac3e2d9_900x720.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNZK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f9728ff-9404-44fe-944e-8baa1ac3e2d9_900x720.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNZK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f9728ff-9404-44fe-944e-8baa1ac3e2d9_900x720.heic" width="900" height="720" 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stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Assata Shakur, i handklovar, leds till f&#228;ngelset.</figcaption></figure></div><h3>Tiden i f&#228;ngelse</h3><p>Efter domen flyttades Assata Shakur till f&#228;ngelse&#246;n Rikers Island i New York. Under r&#228;tteg&#229;ngsprocessen hade hon blivit gravid och i september 1974 f&#246;dde hon en dotter, <strong>Kakuya</strong>, p&#229; ett sjukhus i Queens. Pappan var <strong>Kamau Sadiki</strong>, tidigare k&#228;nd som <strong>Fred Hilton</strong>, som hon &#229;ret innan hade &#229;talats ihop med f&#246;r ett annat brott. Shakur till&#228;ts stanna p&#229; sjukhuset i ett par dagar innan hon f&#246;rdes tillbaka till Rikers Island, d&#228;r hon h&#246;lls i isolering i sammanlagt n&#228;stan tv&#229; &#229;r. Kakuya togs om hand av Shakurs mamma.</p><p>Under de efterf&#246;ljande &#229;ren flyttades Shakur runt mellan olika f&#228;ngelser. I april 1978 placerades hon i West Virginias Alderson Federal Prison Camp, d&#228;r hon behandlades som en h&#246;griskf&#229;nge, h&#246;lls i en s&#229; kallad &#8221;maximum security unit&#8221; och, &#229;tminstone enligt egen utsago, f&#246;rvarades i samma sektion som medlemmar av en vit makt-grupp hon kallade <strong>Aryan Sisterhood</strong>. Tv&#229; m&#229;nader senare flyttades hon till Clinton Correctional Facility for Women i New Jersey.</p><h3>Flykten</h3><p>Hennes allierade i Black Liberation Army hade dock inte gl&#246;mt henne. N&#229;gra medlemmar gick samman och r&#229;nade ett varuhus i New Jersey f&#246;r att finansiera n&#228;sta steg.</p><p>Den 2 november 1979 fick Assata Shakur bes&#246;k av tre v&#228;nner. S&#229; fort de fick syn p&#229; henne drog de fram varsitt insmugglat vapen, tog tv&#229; f&#228;ngelsevakter som gisslan och hj&#228;lpte Shakur att fly. Utanf&#246;r stal de en polisbuss och flydde omr&#229;det.</p><p>Hennes v&#228;nner hade tagit sig in i f&#228;ngelset med hj&#228;lp av falska id-handlingar. De k&#246;rde bussen till en parkering d&#228;r de l&#228;mnade fordonet och de tv&#229; f&#228;ngelsevakterna, innan de hoppade in i tv&#229; andra bilar.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic" width="316" height="500" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:500,&quot;width&quot;:316,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:42658,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/174675399?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fUCu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F61278ba7-b353-4acc-931c-b8d43d05d03c_316x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>FBI inledde en stor s&#246;koperation i New York och New Jersey, men st&#246;tte p&#229; motst&#229;nd fr&#229;n m&#229;nga inv&#229;nare som v&#228;grade samarbeta. FBI:s efterlystaffischer m&#246;ttes ofta av &#8220;Assata Shakur is welcome here&#8221;-planscher.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic" width="319" height="512" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:512,&quot;width&quot;:319,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:24576,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/174675399?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LL9s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81ddb7ef-4a63-492b-b5e6-07ddc0249b48_319x512.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Efter att ha levt under jord i m&#229;nga &#229;r d&#246;k Assata Shakur upp p&#229; Kuba 1984, d&#228;r hon f&#229;tt politisk asyl eftersom den kubanska staten inte ans&#229;g att hon getts en r&#228;ttr&#229;dig r&#228;tteg&#229;ng i USA. F&#246;r allm&#228;nheten blev det k&#228;nt att hon befann sig d&#228;r 1987 n&#228;r hon st&#228;llde upp p&#229; en intervju med Newsday. Samma &#229;r sl&#228;ppte hon sin inflytelserika sj&#228;lvbiografi Assata: <em>An Autobiography</em>. P&#229; mitten av &#229;ttiotalet fick hon &#228;ven s&#228;llskap av sin dotter Kakuya.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic" width="1381" height="2047" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:2047,&quot;width&quot;:1381,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:634135,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/174675399?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mdk4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F323b6208-e059-4f31-b86d-7629264655e7_1381x2047.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Assata Shakur i Havana 1987. Foto: Ozier Muhammad/Newsday, via Getty Images. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Under sin tid i exil blev Assata Shakur en av de viktigaste men mest omstridda symbolerna f&#246;r svart frig&#246;relse. F&#246;r m&#229;nga var hon sj&#228;lva f&#246;rkroppsligandet av det radikala motst&#229;ndet mot rasism, polisv&#229;ld och statsf&#246;rtryck. Hon betraktades som gudmor till den legendariska rapparen <strong>2Pac</strong> och har l&#228;nge haft ikonstatus inom hiphopen. </p><div id="youtube2-HaqXrT9bU10" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;HaqXrT9bU10&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/HaqXrT9bU10?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>Men f&#246;r andra, som k&#246;per de amerikanska myndigheternas version av h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet vid motorv&#228;gsskjutningen, var hon inte mycket mer &#228;n en <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6pa89h7JkA">polism&#246;rdare.</a><br><br>Trots att hon undkommit lagen gav myndigheterna aldrig upp i jakten p&#229; henne. &#196;nd&#229; sedan flykten var Assata Shakur en av USA:s mest efters&#246;kta m&#228;nniskor och 2013 togs hon upp p&#229; FBI:s lista &#246;ver &#8221;most wanted terrorists&#8221;, som enda kvinna. Staten New Jersey och FBI erbj&#246;d upp till en miljon dollar vardera i bel&#246;ning f&#246;r information som ledde till hennes arrestering.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic" width="750" height="992" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:992,&quot;width&quot;:750,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:155416,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/174675399?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F_5y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b4ba4a0-9897-4655-9aee-da418191cb89_750x992.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Flera f&#246;rs&#246;k att f&#229; henne utl&#228;mnad gjordes, bland annat av president Donald Trump &#229;r 2017. Trump anv&#228;nde hennes &#246;verl&#228;mnande som ett av kraven f&#246;r att USA skulle forts&#228;tta f&#246;rsoningsprocessen som inleddes under Barack Obama. Men Kuba v&#228;grade konsekvent.</p><p>Den 26 september avsl&#246;jade kubanska myndigheter att Assata Shakur avlidit dagen innan, till f&#246;ljd av &#8221;h&#228;lsoproblem&#8221; och &#8221;h&#246;g &#229;lder&#8221;. Hon blev 78 &#229;r gammal. Hennes d&#246;d l&#228;r v&#228;cka nytt liv i debatten om hennes arv.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic" width="1304" height="869" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:869,&quot;width&quot;:1304,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:158578,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/174675399?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!In4s!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9893bd4d-d2ef-48b5-bdd0-338d390fcd30_1304x869.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Med sina m&#229;nga decennier p&#229; &#246;n blev Shakur ett av de st&#246;rsta namnen att &#246;verleva den amerikanska statens v&#229;ldsamma repression av svarta frihetsr&#246;relser.</p><p>Kuba blev hennes r&#228;ddning. Det var d&#228;r hon levde, d&#228;r hon dog.</p><p>I exil, men fri.</p><div><hr></div><h3>L&#228;s mer: </h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>Assata: An Autobiography </em>av Assata Shakur (1987)</p><p><em>Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at the Black Panthers and Their Legacy</em> av Kathleen Cleaver och George Katsiaficas (red.) (2001)</p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;Evidence of &#8217;Liberation Army&#8217; Said to Rise&#8221; av Michael T. Icaufman f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(17 februari 1972)</p><p>&#8221;Panther, Trooper Slain in Shoot-out&#8221; av Joseph F. Sullivan f&#246;r <em>New York Times</em> (3 maj 1973)</p><p>&#8221;Group Claims Role in Florida Killings&#8221; f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(24 juni 1974)</p><p>&#8221;Jury in Chesimard Murder Trial Listens to State Police Radio Tapes&#8221; av Walter H. Waggoner f&#246;r<em> New York Times </em>(17 februari 1977)</p><p>&#8221;Joanne Chesimard Convicted in Killing Of Jersey Trooper&#8221; av Walter H. Waggoner f&#246;r <em>New York Times</em> (26 mars 1977)</p><p>&#8221;Miss Chesimard Flees Jersey Prison, Helped By 3 Armed &#8217;Visitors&#8217;&#8221; av Robert Hanley f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(3 november 1979)</p><p>&#8221;On the run with Assata Shakur&#8221; av Ron Howell f&#246;r <em>Newsday</em> (11 oktober 1987)</p><p>&#8221;Fugitive Murderer Reported in Cuba&#8221; av John. T McQuiston f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(12 oktober 1987) </p><p>&#8221;Assata Shakur was convicted of murder. Is she a terrorist?&#8221; av Krissah Thompson f&#246;r <em>Washington Post</em> (8 maj 2013)</p><p>&#8221;Trump to Cuba: Return woman convicted in trooper&#8217;s murder&#8221; av <em>Associated Press </em>(16 juni 2017)</p><p>&#8221;Cuba Won&#8217;t Negotiate Trump&#8217;s New Policy&#8221; av Aria Bendix f&#246;r <em>The Atlantic </em>(19 juni 2017) </p><p>&#8221;Assata Shakur, convicted of killing a police officer, still wanted by FBI 40 years after fleeing to Cuba&#8221; av Christina Carrega f&#246;r <em>ABC News </em>(16 maj 2019)</p><p><strong>&#214;vrigt:</strong></p><p>Message to the Black Movement: A Political Statement from the Black Underground av The Black Liberation Army Coordinating Committee (1975)</p><p>&#8221;The Black Liberation Army: Understanding &#8211; Monitoring &#8211; Controlling&#8221; av The Maryland State Police Criminal Intelligence Division (1991)</p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Sudans sönderfall]]></title><description><![CDATA[Fr&#229;n den koloniala segregationen till dagens mardr&#246;m]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sudans-sonderfall</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sudans-sonderfall</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 03 Sep 2025 13:44:17 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic" width="1180" height="765" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xwof!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7949880f-0c66-464d-bbfe-b56ee5557197_1180x765.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Flyktingar r&#246;r sig &#246;ver gr&#228;nsen till Sydsudan i november 2023. Foto: UNHCR/Ala Kheir</figcaption></figure></div><p><strong>Sudan befinner sig i fritt fall &#8211; medan omv&#228;rlden v&#228;nder bort blicken. Kolonialismens splittringar och ol&#228;kta inb&#246;rdeskrig har lagt grunden till dagens katastrof, och jakten p&#229; landets rikedomar f&#246;rv&#228;rrar folkets lidande.</strong></p><div><hr></div><p>Omr&#229;det som utg&#246;r <strong>Sudan</strong> har en rik historia som str&#228;cker sig tillbaka flera tusen &#229;r. Men som modern nation har Sudan bara existerat sedan 1956, n&#228;r landet vann sin sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet. Sedan 1899 hade regionen styrts som ett kondominat av b&#229;de <strong>Storbritannien</strong> och <strong>Egypten</strong> under namnet <strong>Anglo-egyptiska Sudan</strong>, men i praktiken var det britterna som best&#228;mde.</p><h3><strong>Komplicerad syn p&#229; etnicitet</strong></h3><p>Redan l&#229;ngt innan britternas ankomst var Sudan ett etniskt varierat omr&#229;de med omkring hundra spr&#229;k. Landets historia har ofta beskrivits som en konflikt mellan, n&#229;got f&#246;renklat, de muslimska araberna i norr och de svarta afrikanerna i s&#246;der, som de flesta var kristna eller f&#246;ljde egna inhemska religioner.</p><p>Det &#228;r sv&#229;rt att inte generalisera n&#228;r man pratar om etnicitet i Sudan. Omr&#229;det har varit bebott sedan f&#246;rhistorisk tid och h&#228;r uppstod n&#229;gra av Afrikas allra tidigaste statsbildningar. Det inflytelserika <strong>Kerma</strong> v&#228;xte fram f&#246;r redan 4 500 &#229;r sedan, f&#246;ljt av riket <strong>Kush</strong> som under l&#229;ng tid rivaliserade med Egypten om makten l&#228;ngs norra Nilen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic" width="744" height="490" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:490,&quot;width&quot;:744,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:108126,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oENd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ca07dfa-c378-4f11-be49-318e0a4ca2ca_744x490.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">En cirka 4 000 &#229;r gammal tempelbyggnad, en av Kermas efterl&#228;mningar. Foto: Walter Callens.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Fr&#229;n 600-talet e.Kr. b&#246;rjade muslimer fr&#229;n Arabiska halv&#246;n att ta sig allt l&#228;ngre s&#246;derut fr&#229;n det Egypten man hade lagt under sig. De misslyckades med att er&#246;vra Sudan milit&#228;rt, men gradvis v&#228;xte nya handelsf&#246;rbindelser fram. Slavhandel blev en central del, d&#228;r m&#228;nniskor fr&#229;n olika sudanesiska folkgrupper f&#246;rdes bort till Egypten och vidare ut i den muslimska v&#228;rlden.</p><p>Under de kommande &#229;rhundradena bosatte sig m&#228;ngder av folkgrupper i Sudan, fr&#229;n beduiner &#246;sterifr&#229;n till nilotiska folk l&#228;ngre s&#246;derifr&#229;n. Nya gemenskaper uppstod d&#228;r spr&#229;k, religion och identitet sm&#228;lte samman.<br><br>P&#229; medeltiden tr&#228;ngdes kristna nubiska monarkier successivt bort av muslimska kungad&#246;men p&#229; frammarsch, och p&#229; 1800-talet invaderade <strong>Osmanska riket</strong> via en av sina satellitstater i Egypten. Det gjorde befolkningen &#228;nnu mer blandad och skapade nya mots&#228;ttningar kring land, makt och religion.</p><p>F&#246;renklingen i att portr&#228;ttera Sudans historiska konflikt som en strid mellan araber och afrikaner har sin grund i att landets olika folkgrupper under sekler har gift sig &#8220;&#246;ver gr&#228;nserna&#8221; och att ens identitet h&#228;nger p&#229; mer &#228;n bara hudf&#228;rg. Vilket spr&#229;k man talar och tro man tillh&#246;r spelar minst lika stor roll.</p><p>En som identifierar sig som arab kan i princip ha lika m&#246;rk hudton som en som identifierar sig som afrikan. Och m&#229;nga identifierar sig helt enkelt som en mix. Det finns m&#229;nga olika tolkningar och ingen officiell h&#229;llning.</p><p>Klart &#228;r i alla fall att de som har styrt &#246;ver Sudan, b&#229;de f&#246;re och efter sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigheten, regelbundet har eggat p&#229; denna uppdelning mellan &#8221;svart&#8221; och &#8220;arab&#8221;, muslim och icke-muslim, i ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att beh&#229;lla politisk makt.</p><h3>Kolonial segregation</h3><p>Under sitt styre satsade exempelvis britterna mest i norra Sudan. Det var d&#228;r man byggde bevattningssystem, t&#229;gr&#228;ls, hamnar, skolor och sjukhus. S&#246;dra Sudan l&#228;mnades outvecklat. Strategin, en del av det s&#229; kallade<em> indirekta styret</em>, var en taktik som britterna anv&#228;nde p&#229; m&#229;nga h&#229;ll i Afrika och sk&#228;len var flera:</p><p>Det fanns dels en geografisk, ekonomisk och logistisk anledning. Norra Sudan l&#229;g n&#228;rmare Medelhavet och Storbritannien, och var enklare att knyta till de redan existerande men st&#228;ndigt v&#228;xande handelsn&#228;tverken. Det var &#228;ven d&#228;r bomullsproduktionen, viktig f&#246;r britternas textilindustri, hade som st&#246;rst potential.</p><p>Men d&#229;tida id&#233;er om ras spelade ocks&#229; roll. Britterna ans&#229;g att de muslimska &#8220;araberna&#8221; i norr l&#229;g n&#228;rmare den vita rasen och d&#228;rf&#246;r var b&#228;ttre l&#228;mpade f&#246;r administration och ett viss m&#229;tt av sj&#228;lvstyre. Medan man s&#229;g p&#229; &#8221;afrikanerna&#8221; i s&#246;der som primitiva och inkapabla av ta hand om sig sj&#228;lva.</p><p>Denna s&#228;rskiljning skapade med &#229;ren en enorm politisk, ekonomisk, milit&#228;r och kulturell oj&#228;mlikhet. Som en f&#246;ljd kom norra Sudan att dominera n&#228;r landet blev sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigt. Av de omkring &#229;ttahundra jobben som britterna l&#228;mnade efter sig inom statsapparaten, gick bara sex till tj&#228;nstem&#228;n fr&#229;n s&#246;dra Sudan.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic" width="428" height="589" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:589,&quot;width&quot;:428,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:26202,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5CAX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F131df938-bb46-4a2c-b0a4-080ac0e385fe_428x589.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ibrahim Abboud och Elizabeth II i England 1964.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I augusti 1955, ett halv&#229;r innan sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigheten, gjorde soldater i s&#246;dra Sudan myteri n&#228;r de ins&#229;g att de skulle ledas av nordsudanesiska officerare. Den nya regeringen lyckades sl&#229; ned revolten, men i november 1958 tog milit&#228;ren &#246;ver makten i landet genom en kupp ledd av general <strong>Ibrahim Abboud</strong>.</p><p>Hans vision var att ena Sudan genom att sprida islam i s&#246;der. Mosk&#233;er byggdes, vilodagen &#228;ndrades fr&#229;n s&#246;ndag till fredag och sydsudaneser begr&#228;nsades i sin praktik av kristendom eller inhemska religioner.</p><p>Med den taktiken skulle freden inte h&#229;lla i sig l&#228;nge.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><h3>Decennier av inb&#246;rdeskrig<br></h3><p>Under de kommande decennierna avl&#246;ste svaga regeringar, milit&#228;rjuntor och statskupper varandra under det som kallas f&#246;r det <strong>f&#246;rsta sudanesiska inb&#246;rdeskriget</strong>. 1972 n&#229;dde parterna ett avtal som fick slut p&#229; stridigheterna och inledde landets l&#228;ngsta sammanh&#229;llande period av fred.</p><p>Den varade i bara elva &#229;r. F&#246;r de grundl&#228;ggande tvisterna hade aldrig l&#246;sts och 1983 br&#246;t <strong>Sudans andra inb&#246;rdeskrig </strong>ut. Bakgrunden var komplicerad:</p><ul><li><p>Landets centraliserade styre marginaliserade m&#229;ngas politiska inflytande och det streds om kontroll &#246;ver naturresurser &#8211; framf&#246;rallt oljan som i slutet p&#229; sjuttiotalet hade uppt&#228;ckts i s&#246;der.</p></li><li><p>I s&#246;der var man &#228;ven uppr&#246;rd &#246;ver vad man ans&#229;g var en fortsatt f&#246;rsummelse. Man hade f&#246;r lite inflytande &#246;ver ekonomin och saknade fortfarande betydande investeringar i olika infrastruktur- och utvecklingsprojekt.</p></li><li><p>1983 allierade sig Sudans d&#229;varande president<strong> Jaafar al-Nimeiry </strong>med <em>Muslimska br&#246;draskapets</em> lokala gren i form av <strong>Hassan al-Turabis</strong> <em>National Islamic Front </em>(<strong>NIF</strong>) och introducerade sharialagar &#228;ven i landets icke-muslimska s&#246;dra delar. Detta s&#229;g m&#229;nga sydsudaneser som ett omfattande svek d&#229; de enligt det tidigare fredsf&#246;rdraget hade lovats kulturell och religi&#246;s autonomi.</p></li></ul><p>F&#246;rtrycket spred sig snabbt: samtliga av samh&#228;llets institutioner rensades p&#229; olikt&#228;nkande, politiska motst&#229;ndare f&#228;ngslades utan r&#228;tteg&#229;ng och dissidenter torterades. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic" width="600" height="837" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:837,&quot;width&quot;:600,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:63405,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Dr_7!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F154302ee-7496-4dd3-b364-fac524b781f2_600x837.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Jaafar al-Nimeiry, 1974.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="image-gallery-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;gallery&quot;:{&quot;images&quot;:[{&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/95442417-507b-43b8-b788-ef7b26b04d78_411x600.jpeg&quot;},{&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/30d56d0d-9c3a-488c-a325-5647b30a3ed6_417x600.jpeg&quot;}],&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Idris Al-Nur Koko och Garang Deng Bol, tv&#229; av de m&#229;nga offren f&#246;r Nimeirys s&#229; kallade Septemberlagar, Sharialagarna som innebar att godtyckliga anklaganden om exempelvis st&#246;ld kunde resultera i amputation.&quot;,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;staticGalleryImage&quot;:{&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4effaee2-0ffc-4112-a933-6d8c46749194_1456x720.png&quot;}},&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true}"></div><p>Under ledning av &#246;versten <strong>John Garang </strong>f&#246;ddes d&#228;rf&#246;r <em>Sudanesiska folkets befrielsearm&#233;</em> (<strong>SPLA</strong>) 1983, en rebellgrupp som sa sig strida f&#246;r ett demokratiskt och sekul&#228;rt Sudan.</p><p>Kriget var f&#246;r&#246;dande. Regimtrogna miliser &#246;delade byar man ans&#229;g sympatisera med rebeller, internationellt bist&#229;nd undanh&#246;lls fr&#229;n sv&#228;ltande inv&#229;nare och miljontals drevs p&#229; flykt. Men mellan 1986 och 1988 skedde framsteg i f&#246;rhandlingarna och man f&#246;reslog bland annat vapenvila och en paus av sharialagarna.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic" width="671" height="500" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:500,&quot;width&quot;:671,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:54606,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nk8a!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc0f4ddd4-d057-4c23-a992-c4bdb552414c_671x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">John Garang, andra fr&#229;n h&#246;ger, i slutet p&#229; &#229;ttiotalet. Foto: Nyadol Nyuon</figcaption></figure></div><p>Fredsf&#246;rhoppningarna grusades dock 1989 d&#229; sudanesiska soldater &#229;terigen tog &#246;ver i en milit&#228;rkupp, denna g&#229;ng ledd av &#246;versten <strong>Omar al-Bashir</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DSrY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F55050b3e-eedb-4516-bfd3-892dd23bf079_1200x675.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DSrY!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F55050b3e-eedb-4516-bfd3-892dd23bf079_1200x675.heic 424w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DSrY!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F55050b3e-eedb-4516-bfd3-892dd23bf079_1200x675.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DSrY!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F55050b3e-eedb-4516-bfd3-892dd23bf079_1200x675.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DSrY!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F55050b3e-eedb-4516-bfd3-892dd23bf079_1200x675.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DSrY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F55050b3e-eedb-4516-bfd3-892dd23bf079_1200x675.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Omar al-Bashir i mitten, i samband med 1989 &#229;rs milit&#228;rkupp.</figcaption></figure></div><h3><strong>Omar al-Bashirs trettio&#229;riga v&#228;lde </strong><br></h3><p>Al-Bashir gjorde ingen hemlighet av sina intentioner. Kort efter att han tagit &#246;ver makten framtr&#228;dde han p&#229; ett rally med en Koran i ena handen och en AK-47:a i den andra. Inf&#246;r publiken deklarerade han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Jag lovar h&#228;r inf&#246;r er att rensa ut ur avf&#228;llingarna, legosoldaterna, folkets fiender och de v&#228;pnade styrkornas fiender ur v&#229;ra led. Den som f&#246;rr&#229;der nationen f&#246;rtj&#228;nar inte &#228;ran att leva.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Al-Bashir ville skapa en islamistisk diktatur, st&#228;ngde ned tidningsredaktioner, bannlyste fackf&#246;reningar, deklarerade att sharialagarna skulle forts&#228;tta, inskr&#228;nkte kvinnors r&#228;ttigheter n&#229;got enormt och motarbetade Sudans icke-arabiska kulturer.</p><p>Men &#228;ven muslimer som av olika anledningar v&#228;nde sig emot utvecklingen straffades h&#229;rt. 1992 avgav al-Bashirs l&#228;rda en fatwa som slog fast att:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;En upprorsmakare som tidigare var muslim &#228;r nu en avf&#228;lling, och en icke-muslim &#228;r en icke-troende som utg&#246;r ett hinder mot spridningen av islam; islam har beviljat tillst&#229;nd att d&#246;da dem b&#229;da.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>F&#246;ga f&#246;rv&#229;nande fortsatte inb&#246;rdeskriget, med m&#228;nskligt lidande p&#229; en ofantlig skala. Trots de fina orden om demokrati och religionsfrihet begick &#228;ven SPLA grova &#246;vergrepp, medan regeringen och dess allierade till och med anv&#228;nde sig av f&#246;rslavning i striderna mot sina s&#246;dra rivaler.</p><p>Snart splittrades &#228;ven motst&#229;ndsr&#246;relsen i flera delar, mellan rebeller som ville uppn&#229; ett enat sekul&#228;rt Sudan och de som ville se ett sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigt <strong>Sydsudan</strong>. Flera av de stridande parterna kidnappade civila och rekryterade barnsoldater.</p><p>N&#228;r ett fredsavtal till slut n&#229;ddes &#229;r 2005 hade upp till tv&#229; miljoner m&#228;nniskor d&#246;tt och desto fler flytt. Som del av &#246;verenskommelsen skulle s&#246;dra Sudan h&#229;lla en folkomr&#246;stning huruvida man ville forts&#228;tta tillh&#246;ra nationen eller uttr&#228;da.</p><p>I januari 2011 r&#246;stade 98,83 procent av deltagarna f&#246;r ett uttr&#228;de och det nya landet Sydsudan bildades.</p><h3><strong>Darfurkriget</strong></h3><p>Om de f&#246;rsta och andra sudanesiska inb&#246;rdeskrigen lite simplifierat kan ses som en konflikt mellan nord och syd, kan <strong>Darfurkrisen</strong> ses en strid mellan landets centrala och v&#228;stliga delar.</p><p>Med h&#228;nvisning till en or&#228;ttvis maktbalans och en rasistisk behandling av omr&#229;dets icke-arabiska inv&#229;nare tog rebellgrupperna <em>Sudans befrielser&#246;relse</em> (<strong>SLA</strong>) och <em>Justice and Equality Movement</em> (<strong>JEM</strong>) till vapen i Darfur &#229;r 2003. Regionen &#228;r kolossal, till ytan st&#246;rre &#228;n Sverige, och inv&#229;narna upplevde sig med r&#228;tta &#229;sidosatta.</p><p>Deras krav p&#229; &#246;kat inflytande m&#246;ttes av ett fruktansv&#228;rt v&#229;ld, och samtidigt som kriget i syd gick mot sitt slut exploderade allts&#229; en ny v&#228;pnad konflikt i v&#228;st.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TOl3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F49902e4b-36e8-4632-a41b-205fd735b759_639x426.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TOl3!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F49902e4b-36e8-4632-a41b-205fd735b759_639x426.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TOl3!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F49902e4b-36e8-4632-a41b-205fd735b759_639x426.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TOl3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F49902e4b-36e8-4632-a41b-205fd735b759_639x426.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TOl3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F49902e4b-36e8-4632-a41b-205fd735b759_639x426.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TOl3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F49902e4b-36e8-4632-a41b-205fd735b759_639x426.heic" width="639" height="426" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Janjaweedsoldater fotade i samband med filmningen av dokument&#228;rserien <em>&#8221;Unreported World&#8221;</em> f&#246;r brittiska Channel 4 (2008).</figcaption></figure></div><p>Omar al-Bashir s&#229;g &#229;terigen etnisk utrensning som sitt b&#228;sta verktyg. Sudans flygvapen sl&#228;ppte bomber &#246;ver byar, kvinnor utsattes f&#246;r massv&#229;ldt&#228;kter, och regeringssponsrade miliser, k&#228;nda som <strong>Janjaweed</strong>, fick fri lejd att m&#246;rda, plundra och beg&#229; sexuella &#246;vergrepp p&#229; den, i huvudsak, icke-arabiska befolkningen.</p><p>Upp till 400 000 m&#228;nniskor miste livet i kriget, som beskrivs som ett folkmord, och miljontals tvingades fr&#229;n sina hem. Darfur fick p&#229; mitten p&#229; nollnolltalet bred internationell uppm&#228;rksamhet med stora insamlingar och <strong>George Clooney</strong>-ledda k&#228;ndisgalor.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic" width="685" height="343" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:343,&quot;width&quot;:685,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:49139,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SBw4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0c76043-a443-4c32-a12e-75a2f7c7473d_685x343.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">George Clooney i Darfur.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Men som s&#229; ofta f&#246;rut flyttades sedan den internationella blicken mot nya konflikter. Att v&#228;rldens &#246;gon inte l&#228;ngre riktades mot Darfur betydde dock inte att stridigheterna upph&#246;rde.</p><p>Tortyr, systematiska v&#229;ldt&#228;kter och modernt slaveri skulle forts&#228;tta vara f&#246;renade med Omar al-Bashirs herrad&#246;me. Och att n&#229; ett fredsavtal f&#246;rsv&#229;rades av att rebellerna, precis som i s&#246;der, splittrades i mindre fraktioner som hade skilda m&#229;l och dessutom b&#246;rjade strida mot varandra. <br><br>Tv&#229; fredsf&#246;rdrag, &#229;r <strong>2006 i Abuja</strong> och<strong> 2011 i Doha</strong>, signerades dock mellan regimen och vissa av rebellerna men stridigheterna har aldrig helt upph&#246;rt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic" width="1000" height="666" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:666,&quot;width&quot;:1000,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:64828,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!g8K6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0a5cf81-e995-4205-8efc-0e79b012dd0e_1000x666.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Omar al-Bashir under ett sammantr&#228;de i Indiens New Dehli, den 29 oktober 2015. Foto: Bernat Armangue / AP file</figcaption></figure></div><p>Mellan 2008 och 2010 &#229;talade <strong>ICC</strong>, internationella brottm&#229;lsdomstolen, al-Bashir f&#246;r bland annat krigsbrott, brott mot m&#228;nskligheten och folkmord. Han kunde l&#228;nge ducka anklagelsens genom att portr&#228;ttera dem som en del av en v&#228;sterl&#228;ndsk neo-kolonial konspiration och utvika att bes&#246;ka l&#228;nder som f&#246;rbundit sig att gripa honom.</p><p>Det som till slut, efter trettio &#229;r vid makten, skulle bidra till att v&#228;lta omkull honom var ekonomin. <br></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic" width="1250" height="833" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:833,&quot;width&quot;:1250,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:148139,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rn-E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad10d7dd-e845-4d44-a5f7-c831b22c7e17_1250x833.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Kvinnor utgjorde merparten av demonstranterna under 2019 &#229;rs sudanesiska revolution.</figcaption></figure></div><h3><strong>En kapad sudanesisk revolution</strong></h3><p>I december 2018 gjorde &#246;kade levnadskostnader att demonstrationer br&#246;t ut i flera sudanesiska st&#228;der. Kraven p&#229; ekonomiska reformer utvecklades till ett krav p&#229; al-Bashirs avg&#229;ng, och protesterna v&#228;xte.</p><p>Regeringen m&#246;tte de fredliga demonstranterna med v&#229;ld och i februari 2019 utlyste al-Bashir undantagstillst&#229;nd i ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att &#229;terta kontroll.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sudans-sonderfall?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/sudans-sonderfall?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Den som f&#246;r m&#229;nga kom att representera demonstrationerna var den d&#229; 22-&#229;riga <strong>Alaa Salah</strong>. P&#229; en tidl&#246;s bild syns hon n&#228;r hon ovanp&#229; en bil reser sig &#246;ver folkmassan, kl&#228;dd i en vit dr&#228;kt och med ena fingret h&#246;jt mot himlen. D&#228;r, under v&#229;ren d&#229; allt verkade m&#246;jligt, blev hon symbolen f&#246;r Sudans demokratisering. Symbolen f&#246;r de unga, m&#229;nga av dem kvinnor, som gick i br&#228;schen f&#246;r protestr&#246;relsen som skulle utmynna i den sudanesiska revolutionen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic" width="1456" height="1941" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1941,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:260958,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!SXwx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3fc1151-b63d-4dea-bc7b-841022c06be4_1536x2048.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Alaa Salah. Foto: Lana Haroun /  <a href="https://twitter.com/lana_hago/status/1115359151696142337">Twitter: @lana_hago</a></em></figcaption></figure></div><p>Efter att ha f&#246;rlitat sig p&#229; milit&#228;ren s&#229; m&#229;nga g&#229;nger tidigare chockades al-Bashir av att arm&#233;n den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen v&#228;nde sig mot honom. Ytterligare manifestationer samt demonstranternas veckol&#229;nga sittprotest p&#229; milit&#228;rens h&#246;gkvarter fick landets v&#228;pnade styrkor att avs&#228;tta honom den 11 april. Al-Bashir placerades i husarrest.</p><p>Men ist&#228;llet f&#246;r att inleda en demokratisk process tog milit&#228;ren d&#228;refter &#246;ver landet i form av den s&#229; kallade <strong>Transitional Military Council </strong>(<strong>TMC</strong>). Sudans folk, som hade efterfr&#229;gat demokrati, fortsatte protesterna d&#229; de upplevde att milit&#228;ren inte var &#228;rlig i sina l&#246;ften att l&#228;mna ifr&#229;n sig makten.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic" width="640" height="400" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!847k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F67a6ad21-100f-4d2c-b4a6-861c7b0ad3ac_640x400.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"> Abdel-Fattah Burhan under en presskonferens i Khartoum, Sudan, den 26 oktober 2021. Foto: AP Photo/Marwan Ali)</figcaption></figure></div><p>Officiellt leddes TMC av generall&#246;jtnant <strong>Abdel Fattah al-Burhan</strong>, men m&#229;nga Sudank&#228;nnare menade att den verkliga ledaren var hans andreman: <strong>Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo</strong>, mer k&#228;nd som <strong>Hemedti</strong>.</p><p>Hemedti hade varit delaktig i Darfurkriget och hans Janjaweed-miliser var ansvariga f&#246;r en myriad krigsbrott. Sedan 2013 g&#229;r Janjaweed-milisen under namnet <strong>Rapid Support Forces</strong> (<strong>RSF</strong>), en paramilit&#228;r grupp som tidigare styrdes av al-Bashirs regering men nu, strax efter revolutionen 2019, tj&#228;nade under TMC. Det var RSF som, p&#229; order av TMC, <a href="https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/11/18/they-were-shouting-kill-them/sudans-violent-crackdown-protesters-khartoum?utm_source=chatgpt.com">ledde de v&#229;ldsamma attackerna mot fredliga demonstranter</a> som kulminerade i <strong>Khartoummassakern</strong> i juni 2019.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kxgX!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe0cb7784-d517-4c23-86b3-93f2a0fb7067_2560x1707.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kxgX!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe0cb7784-d517-4c23-86b3-93f2a0fb7067_2560x1707.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kxgX!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe0cb7784-d517-4c23-86b3-93f2a0fb7067_2560x1707.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kxgX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe0cb7784-d517-4c23-86b3-93f2a0fb7067_2560x1707.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kxgX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe0cb7784-d517-4c23-86b3-93f2a0fb7067_2560x1707.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kxgX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe0cb7784-d517-4c23-86b3-93f2a0fb7067_2560x1707.heic" width="1456" height="971" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo. Foto: Yasuyoshi Chiba/AFP via Getty Images.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I juli 2019 n&#229;dde milit&#228;ren och representanter f&#246;r civilsamh&#228;llet en &#246;verenskommelse med hj&#228;lp av medlare fr&#229;n <strong>Etiopien</strong> och den <strong>Afrikanska unionen</strong>. I korta drag skulle makten delas mellan milit&#228;ra och civila ledare. Strax efter valdes <strong>Abdalla Hamdok </strong>till premi&#228;rminister och tillsammans siktade parterna p&#229; att demokratiska val skulle h&#229;llas 2022.</p><p>Men en djup ekonomisk kris &#8211; f&#246;rv&#228;rrad av covid-19-pandemin &#8211; os&#228;mja kring hur makten skulle f&#246;rdelas samt hur &#246;verg&#229;ngen till civilt styre skulle g&#229; till ledde till att valet aldrig &#228;gde rum. F&#246;r h&#246;sten 2021 tog ist&#228;llet Abdel Fattah al-Burhan och Hemedti &#246;ver i en milit&#228;rkupp. I och med det gick landets unga demokratiseringsprocess upp i r&#246;k: den nya regimen grep politiker och satte den civila premi&#228;rministern Abdalla Hamdok i husarrest.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic" width="720" height="720" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:720,&quot;width&quot;:720,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:64184,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!l26k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95830b71-cb05-4f89-9562-cf82c3c38543_720x720.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Man som demonstrerar mot fortsatt milit&#228;rstyre i samband med milit&#228;rkuppen 2021.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Stora folkliga protester tog &#246;ver gatorna men slogs v&#229;ldsamt ned av milit&#228;ren och i januari 2022 avgick Hamdok officiellt. <strong>FN</strong>, <strong>EU</strong> och Afrikanska Unionen f&#246;rd&#246;mde kuppen och i k&#246;lvattnet av &#246;vertagandet f&#246;rdjupades Sudans ekonomiska n&#246;dl&#228;ge.</p><p>Det var al-Burhan som nu var Sudans de facto ledare. Men Hemedtis inflytande var ocks&#229; stort. Hans RSF hade sedan tidigare f&#229;tt kontroll &#246;ver en betydande andel av Sudans guldgruvor &#8211; guld som han sedan dess hade b&#246;rjat skeppa till bland annat <strong>F&#246;renade Arabemiraten </strong>och <strong>Rysslands</strong> &#246;k&#228;nda <strong>Wagner Group </strong>i utbyte mot vapen och st&#246;d. RSF-trupper fungerade ocks&#229; som legosoldater i den <strong>Saudiarabien</strong>-ledda koalitionen i <strong>Jemens</strong> fasansfulla inb&#246;rdeskrig.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic" width="1456" height="966" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:966,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:260844,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Cdlr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1b373ba-9dbf-4fc4-90e1-202e1d19fa94_1600x1062.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Eldsv&#229;da p&#229; en marknad i Omdurman, centrala Sudan i maj 2023.</figcaption></figure></div><h3><strong>Sudans p&#229;g&#229;ende inb&#246;rdeskrig</strong></h3><p>Trots att al-Burhan och Hemedti hade en l&#229;ng historia av samarbete b&#246;rjade deras relation snabbt att krackelera. De kom exempelvis inte &#246;verens om vilka roller som tj&#228;nstem&#228;nnen fr&#229;n den forne diktatorn Omar al-Bashirs regim skulle inneha. Inte heller om tidsplanen f&#246;r n&#228;r RSF formellt skulle bli en del av Sudans regulj&#228;ra arm&#233; (SAF).</p><p>I april 2023, efter m&#229;nader av &#246;kade sp&#228;nningar, mobiliserades RSF-soldater runt om i landet. SAF-trupper beordrade dem att skingras men de v&#228;grade. N&#229;gra dagar senare briserade allt. Huvudstaden Khartoum skakades av explosioner och tunga eldstrider, och v&#229;ldet br&#246;t ut s&#229; pl&#246;tsligt att befolkningen inte hann s&#246;ka skydd. Snart spred det sig till andra delar av landet och ett nytt inb&#246;rdeskrig var ett faktum.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic" width="710" height="757" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:757,&quot;width&quot;:710,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:140936,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hZ8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4e3f3920-d84d-472b-ae4d-cc22f9bcbd75_710x757.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration f&#246;rest&#228;llande krigets utveckling h&#246;sten 2025. Av DN baserat p&#229; uppgifter fr&#229;n BBC. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Den snabba eskaleringen av v&#229;ldet exemplifieras av vad som h&#228;nde med <strong>Khamis Abakar</strong>.</p><p>Abakar var en tidigare medlem av rebellgruppen <strong>Sudanese Liberation Movement </strong>(<strong>SLM</strong>) som stred mot bland annat Janjaweed-miliserna i Darfur under nollnolltalet. Men 2020, i samband med demokrateringsprocessen efter den sudanesiska revolutionen, valdes Abakar att bli guvern&#246;r f&#246;r delstaten V&#228;stra Darfur av den nya premi&#228;rministern Abdalla Hamdok.</p><p>I juni 2023 besk&#246;t RSF flera bostadsomr&#229;den med artilleri och hade ihj&#228;l en stor grupp civila. I ett tv-framtr&#228;dande f&#246;rd&#246;mde Abakar attackerna, pekade ut RSF som g&#228;rningsm&#228;nnen, varnade f&#246;r ett p&#229;g&#229;ende folkmord och efterfr&#229;gade internationell hj&#228;lp.</p><p>Bara timmar senare kidnappades Abakar av RSF-soldater och utsattes f&#246;r omfattande tortyr innan han d&#246;dades. P&#229; sociala medier spreds filmklipp p&#229; hur hans livl&#246;sa kropp sl&#228;pades efter en bil och sedan stenades.</p><div id="youtube2-HD8jPllU7UU" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;HD8jPllU7UU&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/HD8jPllU7UU?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>Det finns flertalet mindre miliser som deltar p&#229; olika sidor av kriget, men p&#229; nationell niv&#229; st&#229;r huvudkonflikten &#228;nnu mellan Sudans arm&#233; och det paramilit&#228;ra RSF. Och det &#228;r dragkampen mellan al-Burhan och Hemedti som &#228;n idag sliter landet i stycken.</p><p>Situationen f&#246;rv&#228;rras dock av att en rad l&#228;nder, fr&#229;n Ryssland och <strong>Iran</strong> till Egypten och Etiopien, involverar sig med det fr&#228;msta m&#229;let att berika sig p&#229; det v&#228;ldiga landets naturtillg&#229;ngar.</p><p>L&#228;ngst verkar F&#246;renade Arabemiraten g&#229; &#8211; gulfstaten vars ambitioner om att bli en regional storspelare har vuxit den senaste tiden. Landet har l&#228;nge &#229;tr&#229;tt afrikanskt guld. <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/05/30/billions-of-dollars-of-african-gold-smuggled-into-uae-yearly-research.html">Vissa siffror pekar p&#229; guld till ett v&#228;rde av 35 miljarder dollar &#229;rligen smugglas ut ur kontinenten</a> och att upp till 85 procent av det hamnar i emiratet, som d&#228;refter blir en mellanhand i handeln med resten av v&#228;rlden.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic" width="1400" height="788" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gaO5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5edac6bb-8373-4194-a3d6-155a7e1f3f13_1400x788.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Hemedti tas emot av Mohammed bin Zayed och Sheikh Mansour, president respektive vicepresident av F&#246;renade Arabemiraten, i Abu Dhabi, mars 2023.</figcaption></figure></div><p>P&#229; liknade s&#228;tt blir guldgruvorna som RSF har er&#246;vrat under det ohyggliga kriget en nyckel i relationen med emiratet. F&#246;r genom att &#246;sa pengar &#246;ver den paramilit&#228;ra gruppen kan F&#246;renade arabemiraten s&#228;kra ett stadigt tillfl&#246;de av mineralen.</p><p>Men RSF f&#229;r inte bara st&#246;d monet&#228;rt. Flera rapporter pekar p&#229; att F&#246;renade arabemiraten spelar en viktig roll i vapeninf&#246;rseln. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/21/world/africa/uae-sudan-civil-war.html#">I september 2024 avsl&#246;jade exempelvis New York Times att emiratet anv&#228;nt ett p&#229;st&#229;tt bist&#229;ndscenter f&#246;r att smuggla in vapen</a> och man&#246;vrera dr&#246;nare. Landet utg&#246;r allts&#229; en direkt anledning till att kriget &#228;r s&#229; utdraget, till att RSF kan f&#246;rgripa sig p&#229; s&#229; m&#229;nga.</p><h3><strong>Inget slut i sikte</strong></h3><p>Det &#228;r som vanligt civilbefolkningen som drabbas n&#228;r makthungriga m&#228;n och expansionistiska nationer drabbar samman. Idag klassas Sudans humanit&#228;ra kris som en av v&#228;rldens v&#228;rsta.</p><p>Ingen &#8221;vinnare&#8221; &#228;r &#228;nnu i sikte, tv&#228;rtom riskerar landet just nu att splittras i tv&#229; mellan den regulj&#228;ra arm&#233;n i &#246;st och RSF i v&#228;st. Den 30 augusti 2025<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4gz1ekdee3o"> rapporterade BBC</a> om RSF:s nya taktik f&#246;r att kunna er&#246;vra <strong>el-Fasher</strong>, den sista SAF-utposten i v&#228;ster. En taktik som vittnar om det fullkomligt dystopiska l&#228;get:</p><p>Baserat p&#229; satellitbilder har RSF sedan i maj gr&#228;vt fram en flera mil l&#229;ng mur runt staden, i form av vallar. Muren verkar vara t&#228;nkt att sp&#228;rra in de en till tv&#229; miljoner m&#228;nniskorna som s&#246;kt skydd i stan, f&#246;r att rent fysiskt hindra f&#246;rn&#246;denheter fr&#229;n att smugglas in. RSF verkar ha som m&#229;l att g&#246;ra hela el-Fasher till en s&#229; kallad <em>kill zone</em>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:321893,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/172672329?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSmA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35aa7dab-a25c-4ebb-9f16-e7556b84e098_1536x864.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Satellitbilden till v&#228;nster visar byn Alsen, strax v&#228;st om El-Fasher, den 6 juli 2025. Bara veckor senare, den 24 juli, har RSF:s vall delat byn i tv&#229;. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Runtom i landet d&#246;das civila med en iskall likgiltighet. Och det sexuella v&#229;ldet &#228;r likas&#229; utbrett. Enligt FN och Human rights watch <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/nov/03/we-will-make-you-have-arab-babies-fears-of-genocide-amid-and-torture-in-sudans-darfur">anv&#228;nder RSF och deras allierade miliser v&#229;ldt&#228;kt som del av en etnisk utrensning</a> &#8211; att tvinga svarta afrikanska kvinnor att f&#246;da &#8221;arabiska barn&#8221;. Metoderna p&#229;minner om de som janjawidmiliserna anv&#228;nde sig av under folkmordet i Darfur p&#229; nollnolltalet.</p><p>Enligt FN befinner sig &#246;ver tio miljoner m&#228;nniskor p&#229; flykt inne i Sudan, medan ytterligare runt fyra miljoner har s&#246;kt skydd utomlands, i n&#229;got av grannl&#228;nderna. &#214;ver trettio miljoner m&#228;nniskor &#228;r i behov av humanit&#228;rt st&#246;d men endast omkring tretton miljoner har f&#229;tt det. Hela tjugofyra miljoner m&#228;nniskor bed&#246;ms lida av akut matbrist.</p><p>N&#228;r jag ser bilden p&#229; Alaa Salah idag t&#228;nker jag fr&#228;mst p&#229; vad som hade kunnat bli. Kanske kan hennes dr&#246;m fortfarande realiseras. Men d&#229; beh&#246;vs ett starkt internationellt samfund och att press l&#228;ggs p&#229; de l&#228;nder &#8211; fram f&#246;r allt F&#246;renade Arabemiraten &#8211; som genom sin sj&#228;lviska involvering f&#246;rl&#228;nger lidandet. De m&#229;nga inhemska civila grupper som dagligen riskerar sina liv f&#246;r att hj&#228;lpa befolkningen beh&#246;ver allt st&#246;d de kan f&#229;.</p><p>Tyv&#228;rr har vi de senaste &#229;ren sett hur m&#229;nga internationella bist&#229;ndsorganisationer och m&#228;nniskor&#228;ttsinstitutioner &#8211; fr&#229;n FN och ICC till Amnesty och R&#228;dda barnen &#8211; har f&#229;tt sina mandat urholkade av stora delar av v&#228;stv&#228;rlden. Ofta som ett resultat av att dessa organisationer och institutioner har ifr&#229;gasatt <strong>Israels</strong> folkmordsanklagade f&#246;r&#246;delse i <strong>Gaza</strong>.</p><p>Konsekvenserna av det riskerar nu att bli monumentala.</p><div><hr></div><h3>L&#228;s mer:</h3><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong><br><br><em>The Secret War in the Sudan: 1955&#8211;1972 </em>av Edgar O'Ballance (1976)</p><p><em>War and Slavery in Sudan </em>av Jok Madut Jok (2001</p><p><em>The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars: Peace Or Truce </em>av Douglas H. Johnson (2003)</p><p><em>Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence</em> av Jok Madut Jok (2007)</p><p><em>The State of Africa</em> av Martin Meredith (2011)</p><p><em>South Sudan: From Revolution to Independence </em>av Matthew LeRiche &amp; Matthew Arnold (2012)</p><p><em>Breaking Sudan: The Search for Peace</em> av Jok Madut Jok (2017)</p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>Life of Shame of Amputees in The Sudan av Sheila Rule f&#246;r <em>The New York Times</em> (16 juni 1986)</p><p>&#8221;In Sudan, No Clear Difference Between Arab and African&#8221; av Somini Sengupta f&#246;r <em>The New York Times </em>(2004)</p><p>"Qur'an and AK-47: the 30-year rule of Sudan's Omar al-Bashir" av Jason Burke f&#246;r <em>The Guardian</em> (11 april 2019)</p><p>"Who are the major international actors involved in Sudan's violence?" av Ali Abbas Ahmadi f&#246;r <em>The New Arab</em> (18 april 2023)</p><p>&#8221;A journey across Sudan's capital Khartoum, a city transformed by war" av Khalid Abdelaziz f&#246;r <em>Reuters</em> (24 april 2023)</p><p>&#8221;Sudanese warring parties dig in as Jeddah talks falter again" av Khalid Abdelaziz och Nafisa Eltahir f&#246;r <em>Reuters</em> (6 december 2023)</p><p>&#8221;FN:s varning: Risk f&#246;r v&#228;rldens st&#246;rsta hungerkris i Sudan" av Emilia Lindell f&#246;r <em>DN</em> (8 mars 2024),</p><p>"After a year of war in Sudan, what is the situation now?" av Areesha Lodhi f&#246;r <em>al-Jazeera </em>(11 april 2024)</p><p>&#8221;One Year of War in Sudan: How Two Rival Generals Wrecked Their Country" av Abdi Latif Dahir och Declan Walsch f&#246;r <em>The New York Times </em>(15 maj 2024)</p><p>&#8221;EU expected to impose sanctions on six Sudanese military figures fuelling war" av Jennifer Rankin f&#246;r <em>The Guardian </em>(5 juni 2024)</p><p>"Villagers flee in terror as 150 reportedly killed in Sudan rebel attack" av Mohammed Tawfeeq och Hamdi Alkhshali f&#246;r <em>CNN</em> (6 juni 2024)</p><p>"Barrier being built around besieged Sudan city, satellite images show" av Anne Soy f&#246;r <em>BBC</em> (30 augusti 2025)</p><p>"V&#228;rldens v&#228;rsta kris &#8211; m&#228;nniskor tvingas &#228;ta djurfoder f&#246;r att &#246;verleva" av Erik Esbj&#246;rnsson och Saeed Alnahhal f&#246;r <em>DN</em> (2 september 2025)</p><p>"Milis isolerar sv&#228;ltande i Sudan &#8211; bygger mur runt staden" av Erik Esbj&#246;rnsson f&#246;r <em>DN</em> (2 september 2025)</p><p><strong>&#214;vrigt:</strong></p><p>&#8221;Civil War in Sudan" av Center for Preventive Action (19 april 2024).</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Thomas Sankara och den stulna revolutionen]]></title><description><![CDATA[Det h&#228;r &#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen om ett land d&#228;r korruption var vardag, d&#228;r en liten elit levde gott p&#229; majoritetens bekostnad och d&#228;r internationellt bist&#229;nd var avg&#246;rande f&#246;r &#246;verlevnad.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/thomas-sankara-och-revolutionen-som</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/thomas-sankara-och-revolutionen-som</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 25 Aug 2025 13:32:25 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic" width="1440" height="720" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8q_p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0aa872a1-79c0-4aca-bc53-77f7a52505d3_1440x720.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">(Thomas Sankara. Foto: AFP via Getty Images.)</figcaption></figure></div><p><strong>Det h&#228;r &#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen om ett land d&#228;r korruption var vardag, d&#228;r en liten elit levde gott p&#229; majoritetens bekostnad och d&#228;r internationellt bist&#229;nd var avg&#246;rande f&#246;r &#246;verlevnad. </strong></p><p><strong>Det &#228;r ocks&#229; en ber&#228;ttelse om en person som ville f&#246;r&#228;ndra allt det och som genuint verkade vilja befolkningens b&#228;sta. Metoderna kunde vara tveksamma men resultaten talade f&#246;r sig sj&#228;lva. </strong></p><p><strong>Det h&#228;r &#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen om Thomas Sankara och hans kamp f&#246;r att f&#229; Burkina Faso att st&#229; p&#229; egna ben. En kamp som kostade honom livet.</strong></p><div><hr></div><p><em>15 oktober, 1987</em></p><p>De sitter runt bordet, s&#229; som de gjort s&#229; m&#229;nga g&#229;nger tidigare. P&#229; agendan &#228;r en diskussion om en ny revolution&#228;r uppf&#246;randekod, t&#228;nkt att underl&#228;tta arbetet mot korruption. M&#228;nnen som utg&#246;r kabinetten sm&#229;pratar innan en av dem f&#246;rklarar m&#246;tet officiellt &#246;ppnat.</p><p>Men ordningen st&#246;rs pl&#246;tsligt av att tumultet utanf&#246;r. En slirande bil, uppjagade r&#246;ster och maskingev&#228;rseld t&#228;vlar om uppm&#228;rksamheten. I m&#246;tesrummet utbryter panik och m&#228;nnen sl&#228;nger sig mot marken f&#246;r att ta skydd. Men s&#229; st&#228;ller sig en av dem upp.</p><p><strong>Thomas Sankara.</strong></p><p>Hj&#228;rnan bakom revolutionen som p&#229; bara fyra &#229;r st&#246;pt om <strong>Burkina Faso</strong> i grunden.</p><p>Medan han f&#246;rsiktigt reser sig upp m&#246;ter han de andras blick, en efter en. &#8221;Stanna h&#228;r&#8221;, s&#228;ger han. &#8221;Det &#228;r mig de vill &#229;t&#8221;. Sedan r&#246;r han sig mot d&#246;rren och &#246;ppnar den. Han h&#246;jer armarna &#246;ver huvudet och g&#229;r ut. N&#229;gon sekund senare h&#246;rs en ny salva fr&#229;n maskingev&#228;ret.</p><p>N&#228;r Thomas Sankara ligger d&#228;r p&#229; golvet, med kulh&#229;l &#246;ver hela kroppen, &#228;r han bara 37 &#229;r gammal. Under hans ledning s&#229;g Burkina Faso en enorm utveckling, och gick med snabba steg mot att frig&#246;ra sig fr&#229;n korruptionens bojor. Men hans radikala och hastiga f&#246;r&#228;ndringar uppskattades inte av alla. Han fick fiender, b&#229;de p&#229; hemmaplan och bland v&#228;stv&#228;rldens storspelare.</p><p>Nu &#229;terstod bara fr&#229;gan: vem m&#246;rdade honom? Och varf&#246;r?</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic" width="1456" height="1128" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1128,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:690721,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AgIm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce70c4ee-f97e-4b5b-9e17-81f093290d0b_1516x1174.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Boukary Koutou, &#228;ven k&#228;nd som Wobgho, ledaren f&#246;r Ouagadougou vid tidpunkten f&#246;r den franska invasionen. Illustration av &#201;douard Riou i boken Du Niger au Golfe de Guin&#233;e par le pays de Kong et le Mossi av Louis Gustave Binger (1892).</figcaption></figure></div><p>L&#229;ngt innan Thomas Sankara var p&#229;t&#228;nkt, styrdes dagens Burkina Faso av <strong>Mossikungad&#246;mena</strong>. Det var en samling l&#246;st sammansatta riken som regerade &#246;ver regionen &#228;nda sedan 1200-talet. Mossifolket utg&#246;r &#228;n idag mer &#228;n h&#228;lften av landets befolkning.<br><br>Men 1896 invaderade <strong>Frankrike</strong>. Det tog l&#229;ng tid f&#246;r fransm&#228;nnen att helt besegra motst&#229;ndet, men &#229;r 1919 blev omr&#229;det slutligen en koloni k&#228;nd som <strong>Franska &#214;vre Volta</strong>. Namnet anspelade p&#229; att de &#246;vre delarna av floden Volta rinner genom landet.</p><p>Det &#228;r en vacker region med majest&#228;tiska baobabtr&#228;d och vidstr&#228;ckta sl&#228;tter av den distinkta r&#246;da jorden. Men det &#228;r samtidigt en og&#228;stv&#228;nlig plats, d&#228;r v&#228;rmen, &#229;terkommande torka och vattenbrist g&#246;r livet h&#229;rt f&#246;r m&#229;nga. De norra delarna av landet ligger i den s&#229; kallade sahelzonen d&#228;r Sahara&#246;knen &#246;verg&#229;r i savann och gr&#228;ssl&#228;tter. Under de sv&#229;raste perioderna &#228;r marginalerna f&#246;r &#246;verlevnad sm&#229;.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Kolonin var l&#229;gprioriterad av fransm&#228;nnen, som fr&#228;mst hade nytta av den f&#246;r en begr&#228;nsad bomullsproduktion och billig arbetskraft. Tv&#229;ngsarbete, h&#246;ga skatter och kolonialherrarnas v&#229;ldsbruk var vanligt f&#246;rekommande. Fattiga b&#246;nder fick sina spannm&#229;l rekvirerade av staten och m&#228;ngder av unga m&#228;n rekryterades fr&#229;n regionen f&#246;r att bygga infrastruktur i f&#246;r Frankrike viktigare kolonier, som <strong>Elfenbenskusten</strong>.</p><h4>Sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigheten</h4><p>Andra v&#228;rldskriget f&#246;ljdes av &#246;kade krav p&#229; sj&#228;lvstyre och p&#229; 1950-talet tog Frankrike beslut som steg f&#246;r steg gjorde det m&#246;jligt. 1960 blev landet sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigt. <strong>Maurice Yam&#233;ogo</strong>, som hade l&#229;ng bakrund inom den koloniala administrationen och som l&#228;nge tillh&#246;rt en elitklass av europiserade afrikaner, utn&#228;mndes till nationens f&#246;rste president. Men hans politiska man&#246;vrer inf&#246;r sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigheten f&#246;rvandlade honom i praktiken till en env&#229;ldsh&#228;rskare. <strong>&#214;vre Volta</strong>, som landet nu hette, inledde d&#228;rf&#246;r sin sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet som en de facto diktatur.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic" width="1280" height="1755" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1755,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:753008,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!heIS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c5af3d-3260-4c07-982a-4888a0a6b99c_1280x1755.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Maurice Yam&#233;ogo, 1960.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Korruption kom att pr&#228;gla &#214;vre Volta och den som gick i br&#228;schen var Yam&#233;ogo sj&#228;lv. Trots landets oerh&#246;rt anstr&#228;ngda ekonomi f&#246;rskingrade han stora summor pengar och spenderade miljoner p&#229; dyra bilar och lyxbost&#228;der. Han gav eftertraktade jobb till familjemedlemmar och f&#228;ngslade kritiker.</p><p>1965, samma &#229;r som han &#8221;omvaldes&#8221; till president med 99,97 procent av r&#246;sterna, gifte han sig med den tjugotv&#229;&#229;riga vinnaren av Fr&#246;ken Elfenbenskusten-t&#228;vlingen. Ceremonin var lika &#246;verd&#229;d som folkligt impopul&#228;r.</p><p>H&#246;jda skatter, indragna bidrag, minskade l&#246;ner f&#246;r statligt anst&#228;llda och minskad pension f&#246;r veteraner &#8211; samtidigt som Yam&#233;ogo spenderade pengar p&#229; ett nytt presidentpalats &#8211; bidrog till att en storstrejk br&#246;t ut i b&#246;rjan av 1966. Fackf&#246;reningar, studenter, statsbor och den religi&#246;sa eliten reste sig mot Yam&#233;ogo, som svarade med att utlysa undantagstillst&#229;nd och hota dom strejkande med milit&#228;rt v&#229;ld. Men ist&#228;llet v&#228;nde sig milit&#228;ren emot Yam&#233;ogo och tvingade honom att avg&#229;.</p><h4>En serie milit&#228;rkupper</h4><p>S&#229; h&#228;r i efterhand vet vi att Afrika lidit av de m&#229;nga milit&#228;rer som tagit politisk makt runtom p&#229; kontinenten, men det h&#228;r var en mer oskyldig tid. H&#228;r trodde man fortfarande att milit&#228;ren, med sin disciplin och struktur, var precis det som beh&#246;vdes f&#246;r att f&#229; bukt p&#229; politikernas v&#228;ltrade i excesser och korruption. Som en f&#246;ljd hade milit&#228;rens &#246;vertagande stort st&#246;d av befolkningen, och m&#229;nga f&#246;rutsatte att makten, efter en &#246;verg&#229;ngsperiod, skulle l&#228;mnas tillbaka till folket.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic" width="690" height="460" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:460,&quot;width&quot;:690,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:35339,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8Cdv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1041afa-3ffc-4605-9ae2-4597f24b9df3_690x460.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sangoul&#233; Lamizana.</figcaption></figure></div><p>F&#246;r &#214;vre Voltas inv&#229;nare blev det snart dock uppenbart att det h&#228;r bara var b&#246;rjan p&#229; en serie revolter som under de kommande decennierna skulle avl&#246;sa varandra. F&#246;rst installerades &#246;verstel&#246;jtnant <strong>Sangoul&#233; Lamizana </strong>som president. Han tj&#228;nade fram till 1980, d&#229; han st&#246;rtades i en ny milit&#228;rkupp. Den nye presidenten, &#246;versten <strong>Saye Zerbo</strong>, hann bara styra i knappt tv&#229; &#229;r innan ocks&#229; han avsattes, den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen av majoren <strong>Jean-Baptiste Ou&#233;draogo</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic" width="266" height="400" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4H0_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26202527-4b8d-42f8-b50f-782451f299f7_266x400.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Saye Zerbo.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic" width="266" height="400" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Fczz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d97c874-ff47-4d01-ae25-6bbfe21e1f0f_266x400.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Jean-Baptiste Ou&#233;draogo.</figcaption></figure></div><p>N&#228;sta statskupp intr&#228;ffade redan 1983. Men den skilde sig fr&#229;n de andra. F&#246;r nu kom en man med grandiosa visioner f&#246;r &#214;vre Volta till makten.</p><h4>Thomas Sankaras v&#228;g till makten</h4><p>Thomas Sankara f&#246;ddes 1949 i den lilla staden Yako i norra Franska &#214;vre Volta. Han tillbringade sin barndom i Gaoua, n&#228;ra gr&#228;nsen till <strong>Ghana</strong> och Elfenbenskusten, d&#228;r pappan var stationerad vid gendarmeriet, en milit&#228;rt organiserad polisk&#229;r. Eftersom pappan var anst&#228;lld av kolonialmakten hade familjen en relativt privilegierad st&#228;llning. De bodde i ett tegelhus uppe p&#229; en kulle ovanf&#246;r staden, tillsammans med de andra av gendarmeriets familjer. Familjen stack ocks&#229; ut genom att vara katoliker i ett land d&#228;r dom flesta var muslimer.</p><p>I skolan blev privilegiet uppenbart n&#228;r han kom i kontakt med barn fr&#229;n l&#228;gre samh&#228;llsklasser. Men han bevittnade &#228;ven hur positivt s&#228;rbehandlade barnen till franska tj&#228;nstem&#228;n blev.</p><p>Som den f&#246;rstf&#246;dde sonen av vad som till slut blev elva barn hade Sankara en f&#246;rdelaktig position &#228;ven i hemmet. Han fick mer utrymme att uttrycka sina &#229;sikter och uppmanades att inta en slags ledarposition: hans gavs ansvar att uppfostra och utbilda sina yngre syskon, som i sin tur b&#246;rjade se p&#229; honom n&#228;stan som en extra f&#246;r&#228;lder.</p><p>Sankara var en duktig elev, s&#228;rskilt i franska och matte, och som sjutton&#229;ring b&#246;rjade han p&#229; den nystartade milit&#228;rh&#246;gskolan i huvudstaden Ouagadougou. D&#228;r fick han, f&#246;rutom milit&#228;r tr&#228;ning, utbildning inom flera akademiska &#228;mnen och l&#228;rde k&#228;nna unga framtida makthavare. Men den kanske viktigaste personen var historie- och geografil&#228;raren Adama Tour&#233;, som introducerade honom f&#246;r koncept som neokolonialism, imperialism, kommunism och socialism.</p><p>1969 blev Sankara en av f&#229; elever som valdes ut att f&#229; forts&#228;tta sin utbildning p&#229; milit&#228;rh&#246;gskolan i Antsirabe i <strong>Madagaskar</strong>. D&#228;r kompletterade han sina studier med jordbrukskunskap, l&#228;ste Karl Marx f&#246;r f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen och blev vittne till protesterna mot den Frankrikev&#228;nliga regimen som skakade landet 1972.</p><p>&#197;ret efter kom Sankara tillbaka till &#214;vre Volta och var med i en bev&#228;pnad gr&#228;nskonflikt mot <strong>Mali</strong> som br&#246;t ut i december 1974. Han hade bef&#228;l &#246;ver en trupp som framg&#229;ngsrikt deltog i ett av f&#229; slag i det annars h&#228;ndelsefattiga kriget. I pressen blev han k&#228;nd som en krigshj&#228;lte, men det var en titel han sj&#228;lv undvek. </p><p>Han slogs ist&#228;llet av hur meningsl&#246;s konflikten var och s&#246;rjde hur den drabbade vanliga civila, m&#228;nniskor som hade det mesta gemensamt men hamnat p&#229; varsin sida om en kolonial landgr&#228;ns. </p><p>Under tiden blev han dock n&#228;ra v&#228;n med en annan framst&#229;ende soldat, <strong>Blaise Compaor&#233;</strong>, och fick rykte om sig som en l&#246;ftesrik officer President Sangoul&#233; Lamizana &#8211; som hade tagit &#246;ver i en statskupp 1966 &#8211; uts&#229;g Sankara till ledare f&#246;r ett nytt milit&#228;rl&#228;ger i staden P&#244; 19<em>76. </em>D&#228;r skulle v&#228;lbeh&#246;vliga elittrupper skulle fostras.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic" width="613" height="378" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:378,&quot;width&quot;:613,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:48510,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NojA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F29a647b5-b2cf-4cef-abd3-7917630d5988_613x378.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Thomas Sankara.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Sankara blev en popul&#228;r ledare. Han uppmuntrade sina soldater till att l&#228;sa b&#246;cker, mobiliserade dem f&#246;r att hj&#228;lpa lokala bybor med olika byggprojekt, spelade gitarr i ett jazzband tillsammans med sin v&#228;n Compaor&#233;, Han h&#246;ll f&#246;rel&#228;sningar om samh&#228;llsfr&#229;gor, anordnade filmvisningar utomhus, ordnade konton &#229;t soldaterna p&#229; en lokal bank och l&#228;rde dem att hantera sina pengar. Vanligtvis &#229;t milit&#228;ra ledare separat, men Sankara &#229;t tillsammans med sina soldater som sakta men s&#228;kert b&#246;rjade avguda honom.</p><p>Men Sankara bekymrades mer och mer &#246;ver landets m&#229;nga utmaningar. Befolkningen var fattig, l&#228;skunnigheten l&#229;g och korruptionen h&#246;g. Matpriserna steg och de som hade m&#246;jlighet f&#246;rskingrade pengar. De stal till och med av hj&#228;lps&#228;ndningarna som omv&#228;rlden skickade till landet f&#246;r att motverka sv&#228;lt och s&#229;lde dem vidare f&#246;r egen vinning. </p><p>S&#229; n&#228;r &#246;versten Saye Zerbo tog &#246;ver presidentposten i en milit&#228;rkupp 1980 var Sankara f&#246;rsiktigt positiv till den nya regimens l&#246;ften om framsteg. Men han misst&#228;nkte samtidigt att det nya ledarskapet saknade den progressiva visionen som beh&#246;vdes f&#246;r att f&#246;r&#228;ndra landet.</p><p>Fortfarande omtyckt blev Sankara befordrad till kapten och i september 1981 rekryterad till tj&#228;nsten som informationsminister inom den nya administrationen. Han accepterade posten motvilligt, eftersom han og&#228;rna ville alliera sig med en regim som han inte visste var han hade. </p><p>Men egentligen hade han inget val: att bli informationsminister var inte s&#229; mycket ett jobberbjudande som en milit&#228;r order, och som en soldat var han tvungen att f&#246;lja den. Hans villkor var dock att tj&#228;nsten endast skulle vara tillf&#228;llig och att hans v&#228;n Compaor&#233; skulle ta &#246;ver hans chefskap p&#229; milit&#228;rl&#228;gret.</p><p>Som minister stack Sankara ut: han f&#246;redrog att cykla till jobbet hellre &#228;n att anv&#228;nda tj&#228;nstebilen, &#229;t sina m&#229;ltider p&#229; billiga gatuk&#246;k, och uppmuntrade pressen att inte sk&#246;nm&#229;la regeringen i sin rapportering.</p><p>Trots l&#246;ftena om motsatsen fortsatte korruption och repression att vara del av den nya regimen: beslutsfattare drog in strejkr&#228;tten, f&#228;ngslade aktivistiska studenter och gjorde sig fiende med fackf&#246;reningarna. Som en portest sa Sankara pl&#246;tsligt upp sig i april 1982, efter bara ett drygt halv&#229;r i tj&#228;nsten. </p><p>Han meddelade sitt beslut i ett lives&#228;nt radioframtr&#228;dande och passade samtidigt p&#229; att kritisera regeringen f&#246;r tystandet av folket. Regimen svarade med att omedelbart fr&#229;nta honom hans kaptensrang och f&#246;rvisa honom till ett milit&#228;rl&#228;ger i landets v&#228;stra delar.</p><p>Men dagarna f&#246;r Saye Zerbos regim var r&#228;knade. I november 1982 intog arm&#233;n huvudstaden och utannonserade grundandet av en ny milit&#228;rjunta, ledd av den nye presidenten Jean-Baptiste Ou&#233;draogo.</p><p>Sankaras popularitet hade inte undg&#229;tt n&#229;gon och i januari 1983 erbj&#246;ds han posten som premi&#228;rminister. Relationen med Ou&#233;draogo blev dock tidigt anstr&#228;ngd p&#229; grund av Sankaras krav p&#229; en mer progressiv politik. I passionerade tal som drog stora och unga publiker, kritiserade han byr&#229;kratin, f&#246;retagare och den politiska eliten. </p><p>Inom juntan fanns en tydlig reva mellan det &#228;ldre gardet som utbildats i Frankrike och fortfarande stod den gamla kolonialmakten n&#228;ra, och den yngre mer radikala generationen som s&#229;g imperialism och neokolonialism som sj&#228;lva k&#228;llan till problemen som landet tampades med.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/thomas-sankara-och-revolutionen-som?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/thomas-sankara-och-revolutionen-som?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p><strong>Den Alliansfria r&#246;relsen </strong>var en organisation f&#246;r stater i den s&#229; kallade tredje v&#228;rlden. Den str&#228;vade efter att bevaka medlemsl&#228;ndernas intressen under kalla krigets dragkamp mellan &#246;st och v&#228;st. I mars 1983 h&#246;ll organisationen en konferens i <strong>Indiens</strong> New Delhi och Sankara var en av talarna. D&#228;r gjorde han sig f&#246;r f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen ett namn p&#229; den internationella arenan, och kom ut ut som en motst&#229;ndare till <strong>Israels</strong> invasion av <strong>Libanon</strong>, kritiserade <strong>USA:s</strong> imperialism i <strong>Sydamerika</strong> och uttryckte sitt st&#246;d till folket i apartheidens <strong>Sydafrika</strong>.</p><p>Under sammantr&#228;det hade han en l&#229;ng konversation med <strong>Kubas</strong> ledare <strong>Fidel Castro</strong>. Innan konferensen hade Sankara bes&#246;kt <strong>Libyen</strong> och efter den gjorde han en snabbvisit i <strong>Nordkorea</strong>. Detta samverkade f&#246;r att sp&#228; p&#229; v&#228;stv&#228;rldens oro f&#246;r att den unge och popul&#228;re Sankara skulle f&#246;ra &#214;vre Volta i en socialistisk, rent av kommunistisk, riktning.</p><p>P&#229; hemmaplan fortsatte dock Sankaras &#246;vertygelse och karisma att g&#246;ra honom till en favorit hos folket. Men hans revolution&#228;ra tendenser fick Ou&#233;draogo att se honom som ett hot. Utan presidentens vetskap bj&#246;d Sankara &#228;ven in Libyens diktator <strong>Muammar al-Gaddafi </strong>till &#214;vre Volta v&#229;ren 1983, trots att Gaddafi s&#229;gs som en skurk av b&#229;de USA och Frankrike.</p><p>Drygt tv&#229; veckor senare greps Sankara, enligt somliga historiker efter p&#229;tryckningar fr&#229;n Frankrike, och placerades under husarrest. F&#246;r regimen var f&#246;rhoppningen att arresterandet av Sankara skulle &#246;ka den politiska stabiliteten och l&#228;gga locket p&#229; landets revolution&#228;ra element. Det var en kostsam felbed&#246;mning. F&#246;r beslutet v&#228;ckte ilska hos b&#229;de civila och landets unga officerare. Vilda protester br&#246;t ut.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic" width="619" height="371" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:371,&quot;width&quot;:619,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:46785,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RrTA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe4c9cc78-ef70-4b7c-b443-b75fdb5b4f84_619x371.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Blaise Compaor&#233; till v&#228;nster, Thomas Sankara i mitten.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Den 4 augusti ledde kaptenen Blaise Compaor&#233;, Sankaras v&#228;n, en trupp mot Ouagadougou. Den intog huvudstaden och senare p&#229; kv&#228;llen h&#246;rdes Sankara p&#229; radion. Han meddelade att milit&#228;rjuntan avsatts och utannonserade skapandet av <strong>National Revolutionary Council</strong>, landets nya beslutande parti. Sankara, endast trettiotre &#229;r gammal, tog sj&#228;lv &#246;ver presidentskapet.</p><p>Dagen efter fylldes gatorna av jubilerande folkmassor. 5 augusti var &#214;vre Voltas nationaldag och antagligen var valet av datum f&#246;r revolutionen ett medvetet f&#246;rs&#246;k att rida p&#229; den gl&#228;djev&#229;gen. Sankare &#229;kte runt stan och stannade periodvis f&#246;r att prata med inv&#229;narna, vars ansikten lyste av sp&#228;nd f&#246;rv&#228;ntan.</p><p>&#214;vre Volta stod nu inf&#246;r kolossala f&#246;r&#228;ndringar. </p><h4>En ny typ av revolution</h4><p>Till skillnad fr&#229;n de tidigare statskupperna som avl&#246;st varandra i &#214;vre Volta hade Thomas Sankaras revolution riktiga ambitioner om att st&#246;pa om landet. H&#246;gst upp p&#229; agendan var att bryta traditionen av korruption som m&#246;jliggjort att en liten elit v&#228;ltrade sig i lyx medan majoriteten av befolkningen levde i utbredd fattigdom. </p><p>I boken <em>Thomas Sankara: An African Revolutionary</em><strong> </strong>citerar amerikanske journalisten Ernest Harsch ett tal som Sankara h&#246;ll tv&#229; m&#229;nader efter &#246;vertagandet. I det beskrev han &#214;vre Voltas 23 &#229;r av sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndighet som ett <em>&#8221;paradis f&#246;r den rika minoriteten men ett knappt tolerabelt helvete f&#246;r majoriteten, folket."</em></p><p>Sankaras l&#246;ften var m&#229;nga och storslagna. Men utmaningarna var extrema. V&#228;rldsbanken rankade &#214;vre Volta som ett av v&#228;rldens fattigaste l&#228;nder, utl&#228;ndska investeringar var minimala och befolkningen, som n&#228;stan uteslutande f&#246;rlitade sig p&#229; jordbruk, drabbades av regelbunden torka, &#246;versv&#228;mningar och gr&#228;shoppssv&#228;rmar.</p><p>Sin vana trogen hade Sankara en informell ledarstil som br&#246;t av mot den r&#229;dande trenden bland m&#229;nga afrikanska ledare: han till&#228;t inga avbildningar av sig sj&#228;lv p&#229; offentliga byggnader eller platser, han fortsatte bo i samma enkla hus som tidigare, hans tv&#229; barn gick i statlig skola och han undvek att ge sl&#228;ktingar positiv s&#228;rbehandling. Hans fru Mariam fortsatte jobba p&#229; ett fraktbolag medan hans mamma arbetade p&#229; marknaden.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic" width="1136" height="1371" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1371,&quot;width&quot;:1136,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:159906,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GSrL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d7f47f1-0866-4599-98e0-2eff13d4302b_1136x1371.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sankara inf&#246;r en fotbollsmatch d&#228;r han skulle agera domare. Ur boken <em>Thomas Sankara: An African Revolutionary</em><strong> </strong>av Ernest Harsch.</figcaption></figure></div><p>P&#229; &#229;rsdagen av kuppen bytte Sankara namn p&#229; landet, fr&#229;n det koloniala &#214;vre Volta till Burkina Faso, som p&#229; lokala spr&#229;k &#246;vers&#228;tts till ungef&#228;r &#8221;de hederv&#228;rdas land&#8221;. Som gammal gitarrist skrev han sj&#228;lv den nya nationals&#229;ngen.</p><p>Sankara sj&#246;satte flera ambiti&#246;sa projekt. Regeringens samling av dyra Mercedesbilar s&#229;ldes och betydligt billigare Renault 5-modeller k&#246;ptes in. Pengarna som blev &#246;ver av f&#246;rs&#228;ljningen spenderades i st&#228;llet p&#229; skolor och v&#229;rdkliniker. Han gav regeringsanst&#228;llda, inklusive sig sj&#228;lv, modesta l&#246;ner och f&#246;rbj&#246;d dem fr&#229;n att resa i f&#246;rsta klass. Flera av bonusarna de vant sig vid att f&#229;, drogs in. I <em>Thomas Sankara: A Revolutionary in Cold War Africa </em>skriver historikern Brian J. Peterson:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Till skillnad fr&#229;n m&#229;nga regeringar som samtidigt tog till &#229;tstramningsmetoder &#8211; ofta genom att sk&#228;ra i sjukv&#229;rd, utbildning och andra sociala program f&#246;r att bevara elitens privilegier &#8211; gjorde Sankara motsatsen. Han tvingade eliten att g&#246;ra uppoffringar och s&#229;g till att &#229;tstramningen hj&#228;lpte landsbygdens fattiga&#8221;.</em></p></blockquote><p>I samband med statskuppen som gav honom makten manade Sankara folket att uppr&#228;tta s&#229; kallade <strong>kommitt&#233;er f&#246;r revolutionens f&#246;rsvar</strong>. Dessa kommitt&#233;er, <strong>CDR:s</strong>, var inspirerade av en kubansk f&#246;rlaga och till en b&#246;rjan fungerade de s&#229; som namnet antyder. Vanliga civila fick en kort utbildning och bev&#228;pnades, ofta med enkla tillhyggen, och fick sedan i uppdrag att h&#229;lla vakt och utkik efter potentiella kontrarevolution&#228;rer. </p><p>Men snart kom de att fungera som ett s&#228;tt att mobilisera befolkningen och ett s&#228;tt att genomf&#246;ra regeringens direktiv. De utgjordes av en blandad skara inv&#229;nare, fr&#229;n v&#228;lutbildade till illitterata, och kom fram till sina beslut genom omr&#246;stning.</p><p>CDR:erna fick ansvar f&#246;r allt fr&#229;n att bygga och reparera v&#228;gar till att dela ut mat till beh&#246;vande. &#214;verallt organiserade sig folket och som ett kollektiv tog de tag i utvecklingen. Skolor uppf&#246;rdes, bost&#228;der byggdes, bevattningssystem gr&#228;vdes fram.</p><div id="youtube2-LVKgvakY_Io" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;LVKgvakY_Io&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/LVKgvakY_Io?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>Bland mossibefolkningen p&#229; landsbygden hade &#228;ldre manliga byh&#246;vdingar &#8211; ibland en person, ibland ett r&#229;d &#8211; traditionellt haft mycket makt och ett stort m&#229;tt sj&#228;lvbest&#228;mmande, men nu ersattes de gradvis av CDR-kommitt&#233;erna, som kom att representera regeringen p&#229; lokalniv&#229;, fr&#229;n urbana milj&#246;er till landets mer avl&#228;gsna h&#246;rn.</p><p>Sankara ville &#228;ven f&#246;rb&#228;ttra kvinnors st&#228;llning i Burkina Fasos traditionellt mansdominerade samh&#228;lle. Redan som ung hade hade lagt m&#228;rke till skillnaderna i hur m&#228;n och kvinnor behandlade, n&#229;got som Brian J. Peterson kopplar till Sankaras n&#228;ra relation med sin mamma och sex systrar. Som nio&#229;ring gick Sankara till och med emellan n&#228;r hans far var p&#229; v&#228;g att sl&#229; hans mamma.</p><div id="youtube2-pmGy1U_ZruE" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;pmGy1U_ZruE&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/pmGy1U_ZruE?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>I ett tal som Sankara h&#246;ll p&#229; kvinnodagen 1987 och som finns &#229;tergivet i sin helhet i boken <em>Women's Liberation and the African Freedom Struggle </em>sa han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Medan samh&#228;llet ser f&#246;dandet av en pojke som en g&#229;va fr&#229;n Gud, ses f&#246;dandet av en flicka som &#246;desbest&#228;mt eller i b&#228;sta fall som en g&#229;va som kan producera mat och bevara m&#228;nniskan. Den lilla pojken l&#228;r sig att vilja ha och att f&#229;, att tala h&#246;gt och att bli serverad, att beg&#228;ra och att ta. Att best&#228;mma saker sj&#228;lv.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Sedan j&#228;mf&#246;rde han med hur flickor uppfostras:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Som en man bankar samh&#228;llet i den framtida kvinnan normer som inte leder n&#229;nstans. Hon f&#229;r ingen barndom. Fr&#229;n tre &#229;rs &#229;lder m&#229;ste hon m&#246;ta f&#246;rv&#228;ntningarna som placeras p&#229; henne: att tj&#228;na och att vara anv&#228;ndbar. Medan hennes fyra-, fem- eller sex&#229;riga bror leker tills han kollapsar av utmattning eller uttr&#229;kning, f&#229;r hon &#8211; utan pompa eller st&#229;t &#8211; p&#229;b&#246;rja produktionsprocessen. Hon har redan ett yrke: assisterande hemmafru. Och det &#228;r sj&#228;lvklart en obetald position, f&#246;r s&#228;gs det inte generellt att hemmafruar inte g&#246;r n&#229;t? Skrivs det inte &#8217;hemmafru&#8217; p&#229; id-korten som arbetsl&#246;sa kvinnor har&#8221;.</em></p></blockquote><p>Lite senare fortsatte han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8220;P&#229; grund av tradition och obligatorisk underkastelse v&#228;xer v&#229;ra systrar upp mer och mer beroende, mer och mer dominerade, mer och mer utnyttjade, och med &#228;n mindre avkoppling och fritid.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Under Sankaras ledning f&#246;rbj&#246;ds kvinnlig omsk&#228;relse, polygami och tv&#229;ngsgifte. En l&#228;gsta &#229;lder f&#246;r gifterm&#229;l inf&#246;rdes, skilsm&#228;ssor beh&#246;vde nu ta &#228;ven kvinnans vilja i beaktning f&#246;r att godk&#228;nnas och &#228;nkor fick arvsr&#228;tt. Han f&#246;rbj&#246;d &#228;ven prostitution, som han kallade f&#246;r &#8221;inget annat &#228;n ett mikrokosmos av ett samh&#228;lle d&#228;r utnyttjande &#228;r norm&#8221;. </p><p>Kvinnor som tidigare hade s&#229;lt sex erbj&#246;ds platser p&#229; rehabiliteringscenter d&#228;r de fick husrum och yrkesf&#246;rberedande utbildning, n&#229;got som ocks&#229; erbj&#246;ds till heml&#246;sa. Han inf&#246;rde dessutom en regel om att minst 30 procent av regeringstj&#228;nsterna skulle innehas av kvinnor och gjorde det till&#229;tet f&#246;r unga gravida att stanna i skolan.</p><p>F&#246;r att synligg&#246;ra kvinnors b&#246;rda i hemmen orkestrerade han en slags protest. I Burkina Faso var det traditionellt kvinnorna som varje dag begav sig till marknaderna, inf&#246;rskaffade matvarorna och bar hem dem. Men den 22 september 1984 blev rollerna ombytta och m&#228;nnen tvingades till marknaderna i ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att f&#229; dem att respektera arbetsb&#246;rdan.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic" width="1200" height="801" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AAiH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F927c42e1-ab78-4fca-b8e2-446748f50887_1200x801.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Thomas Sankara under ett tal i Paris, h&#246;sten 1983. </figcaption></figure></div><p>F&#246;r att f&#246;rb&#228;ttra folkh&#228;lsan startades ett program som under en tv&#229;veckorsperiod vaccinerade drygt tv&#229; miljoner inv&#229;nare, m&#229;nga av dem barn, mot potentiellt d&#246;dliga sjukdomar som gula febern, m&#228;ssling och hj&#228;rnhinneinflammation. Dessutom byggdes m&#228;ngder av v&#229;rdcentraler, barnad&#246;dligheten sj&#246;nk drastiskt och Sankaras regering var en av de f&#246;rsta i Afrika att offentligt erk&#228;nna hiv-epidemien min som ett stort hot mot folkh&#228;lsan.</p><p>Den lokala bomullsindustrin utvecklades ocks&#229; &#8211; statligt anst&#228;llda f&#246;rv&#228;ntades b&#228;ra uniformer tillverkade av inhemsk bomull &#8211; samtidigt som jordbruksreformer &#246;kade matproduktionen och gjorde Burkina Faso sj&#228;lvf&#246;rs&#246;rjande. <br><br>Vid flera tillf&#228;llen sa Sankara varianter av det h&#228;r budskapet:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;En soldat utan ideologisk utbildning &#228;r inget annat &#228;n en kriminell med makt&#8221;.</em></p></blockquote><p>Vad g&#228;ller Burkina Fasos milit&#228;r omsatte han det budskapet i praktiken. P&#229; milit&#228;rbaser runtom i landet fick soldater i uppdrag att anl&#228;gga odlingar och uppf&#246;da boskap, att h&#229;lla st&#228;der och byar rena och att hj&#228;lpa till i byggandet av skolor. F&#246;rutom att den typen av arbete hj&#228;lpte till att utveckla landet fanns det ett annat sk&#228;l att anv&#228;nda milit&#228;ren p&#229; det h&#228;r s&#228;ttet. </p><p>Enligt journalisten Ernest Harsch, som t&#228;ckt Burkina Faso sedan 1980, ber&#228;ttade Sankara f&#246;r honom att soldaterna, genom jordbruk, p&#229;mindes om hur vanliga burkinier arbetade och slet. P&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt skulle soldaterna se sig sj&#228;lva som en del av folket och inte som en priviligerad grupp.</p><p>Sankara kallas ofta f&#246;r en marxist-lenninist och p&#229; hans kontor fanns b&#246;cker av Marx, ett tyg med en avbildning av <strong>Che Guevara</strong> p&#229;, och p&#229; hans skrivbord stod till och med en byst av <strong>Lenin</strong>. Men han var samtidigt troende och h&#228;vdade att Burkina Faso inte var anh&#228;ngare av n&#229;gon av de utl&#228;ndska ideologierna, varken till h&#246;ger eller v&#228;nster. I en intervju med <em>Newsweek</em> p&#229;stod han att hans regerings m&#229;l bara var att f&#246;rse folket med: &#8221;adekvat mat, kl&#228;der, husrum, v&#229;rd och utbildning&#8221;.</p><p>En vanlig missuppfattning eller f&#246;renkling &#228;r att Sankara helt tackade nej till utl&#228;ndskt bist&#229;nd. I verkligheten var Burkina Faso beroende av omfattande ekonomiskt st&#246;d fr&#229;n framf&#246;r allt Frankrike, men &#228;ven fr&#229;n nationer som <strong>Nederl&#228;nderna</strong>, <strong>Japan</strong>, Kuba och <strong>Kina</strong>.</p><p>Sankara var dock starkt kritisk till id&#233;n om bist&#229;nd som v&#228;lg&#246;renhet. Han s&#229;g det som en form av l&#229;n, tackade nej till f&#246;rslag som kortsiktigt kunde gagna landet men l&#229;ngsiktigt skada det och arbetade f&#246;r att Burkina Faso i framtiden skulle kunna st&#229; p&#229; egna ben. Han utm&#228;rkte sig genom att avvisa n&#228;rmanden fr&#229;n Internationella valutafonden och V&#228;rldsbanken eftersom han ans&#229;g att institutionerna annars skulle f&#229; f&#246;r stort inflytande &#246;ver landets ekonomi, och d&#228;rmed revolutionen.</p><p>Fram&#229;tandan var imponerande. Skolavgifterna s&#228;nktes till h&#228;lften, l&#228;skunnigheten &#246;kade, nya v&#228;gar, t&#229;gr&#228;ls och brunnar byggdes och tio miljoner tr&#228;d planterades f&#246;r att motverka &#246;kenspridning.</p><p>Bedrifterna var m&#229;nga. Men det fanns en baksida.</p><h4>Sankaras kritiker mobiliserar sig</h4><p>Trots de tidiga framg&#229;ngarna var Thomas Sankaras kritiker noga med att p&#229;peka att hans metoder var odemokratiska. Regeringen till&#228;t inga andra politiska partier, avskedade statligt anst&#228;llda som ans&#229;gs vara kontrarevolution&#228;ra och motarbetade fackf&#246;reningar. N&#228;r landets l&#228;rare i mars 1984 gick ut i strejk sedan tv&#229; av deras kollegor avskedats f&#246;r kritiska uttalanden om regeringen, svarade utbildningsministern med att avskeda ytterligare drygt tusen av dem.</p><p>Pressen var inte officiellt censurerad och regeringen vidh&#246;ll att journalisterna var fria att kritisera makten, men i praktiken framf&#246;rdes ingen kritik. Och n&#228;r maskerade m&#228;n i juni 1984 attackerade och br&#228;nde ner tryckeriet tillh&#246;rande <em>L&#8217;Observateur</em>, landets enda sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndiga tidning, blev statligt &#228;gda medier det enda kvarvarande alternativet.</p><p>Sankara uppr&#228;ttade &#228;ven &#8221;revolution&#228;ra domstolar&#8221;, som stod utanf&#246;r det vanliga r&#228;ttsv&#228;sendet och var t&#228;nkta att ge vanligt folk chansen att bevittna r&#228;tteg&#229;ngar mot korrupta tj&#228;nstem&#228;n och medlemmar av tidigare regeringar. Ist&#228;llet kunde de urarta i skenr&#228;tteg&#229;ngar pr&#228;glade av personliga vendettor. &#197;talade stod utan f&#246;rsvarsadvokater och saknade m&#246;jligheten att &#246;verklaga. Ofta var syftet ren avskr&#228;ckning och straffen lindriga, men ibland kunde l&#229;nga f&#228;ngelsestraff och h&#246;ga b&#246;ter delas ut.</p><p>Sankaras snabba reformer var uppskattade i m&#229;nga l&#228;ger men skapade m&#228;ktiga fiender i andra, speciellt eftersom f&#246;r&#228;ndringarna var t&#228;nkta att genomf&#246;ras omg&#229;ende, utan pr&#246;votid eller &#246;verg&#229;ngsperioder.</p><p>F&#246;rbuden mot polygami och kvinnlig omsk&#228;relse m&#246;tte motst&#229;nd fr&#229;n vissa grupper, inte enbart m&#228;n, som ans&#229;g att de br&#246;t mot viktiga sedv&#228;njor. Att urbana tj&#228;nstem&#228;n tvingades s&#228;nka sina l&#246;ner och f&#229; sina bonusar indragna till f&#246;rm&#229;n f&#246;r befolkningen p&#229; landsbygden gjorde medelklassen uppr&#246;rd. </p><p>Och mossifolkets tradition att l&#228;mna delar av beslutsfattandet till &#228;ldre manliga byh&#246;vdingar utmanades av den nya regeringens hierarkier. Fr&#229;n att i sekler ha vant sig vid makt och inflytande ber&#246;vades nu dessa traditionella ledare sina m&#246;jligheter att utkr&#228;va arbete och beskatta inv&#229;nare.</p><p>Missn&#246;jet v&#228;xte dessutom inom den statliga apparaten n&#228;r Sankara, fr&#229;n augusti 1985, inledde ett &#229;rligt program d&#228;r ministrar och statligt anst&#228;llda omplacerades till landsbygden f&#246;r att delta i olika projekt. Enligt Sankara var syftet att ge dem en inblick i befolkningens utmaningar, och att understryka f&#246;r folket att regeringsanst&#228;llda inte stod &#246;ver vanliga inv&#229;nares plikter. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic" width="1456" height="816" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S6CR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2c462ed8-0006-4305-8b77-293ec17c1d34_1920x1076.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Thomas Sankara vid ett m&#246;te i Harare 1986, &#229;ret innan han m&#246;rdades. </figcaption></figure></div><p></p><p>Hans milit&#228;ra disciplin gjorde att han ibland &#246;verraskade statligt anst&#228;llda genom att bes&#246;ka deras kontor f&#246;r att inspektera att de sk&#246;tte sitt arbete, en metod som av f&#246;rklarliga sk&#228;l ogillades av m&#229;nga. Om tj&#228;nstem&#228;n var sena till jobbet med s&#229; lite som fem minuter kunde de straffas genom att beordras arbeta kv&#228;llar eller helger.</p><p>Till och med hans n&#228;ra milit&#228;ra kollegor retades upp n&#228;r han beordrade kaptenen <strong>Gilbert Diend&#233;r&#233;</strong> att avsluta en aff&#228;r med en &#228;lskarinna. F&#246;r Sankara var otrohet inte f&#246;renligt med revolutionen, n&#229;got flera av hans manliga allierade irriterade sig p&#229; och ans&#229;g var allt f&#246;r idealistiskt.</p><p>I b&#246;rjan av 1987 hade Sankara blivit isolerad. Som individ var han fortfarande omtyckt av majoriteten av folket, och utomlands fanns det m&#229;nga som s&#229;g upp till honom f&#246;r Burkina Fasos snabba framsteg . Men i sj&#228;lva verket hade luften nu g&#229;tt ur revolutionen.</p><p>P&#229; den internationella arenan hade hans antiimperialistiska retorik gjort relationen med USA och Frankrike kylig. Det sp&#228;nda f&#246;rh&#229;llandet med den f&#246;re detta kolonialmakten spillde &#246;ver i och sp&#228;dde p&#229; konflikter med grannl&#228;nderna Elfenbenskusten, Mali och Togo &#8211; alla tre n&#228;ra franska allierade. Libyens Muammar al-Gaddafi, en tidigare bundsf&#246;rvant, hade ocks&#229; v&#228;nt honom ryggen sedan Sankara v&#228;grat &#246;ppna upp landet f&#246;r Libyensponsrade rebelltrupper som planerade en kupp i Liberia.</p><p>Rykten om en ny revolt i Burkina Faso oroade Sankaras n&#228;rmaste v&#228;nner och familj. Trots deras v&#228;djan om att han skulle attackera f&#246;rst, valde Sankara att avvakta. Att spilla blod skulle bara leda till en evighetsl&#229;ng vendetta.</p><p>I sina tal under h&#246;sten 1987 var Sankara fortsatt kritisk till den medelklass och politiska elit som han ans&#229;g var upptagna med att berika sig sj&#228;lva p&#229; de fattigas bekostnad. Men han medgav ocks&#229; att regeringen kan ha genomf&#246;rt somliga f&#246;r&#228;ndringar f&#246;r fort och f&#246;reslog en &#8221;paus&#8221; i revolutionen f&#246;r att ge samh&#228;llet en chans att h&#228;mta andan. Vad han &#228;n f&#246;rs&#246;kte uppn&#229; var det redan f&#246;r sent.</p><h4>Sankara m&#246;rdas och Burkina Faso n&#228;rmar sig v&#228;st</h4><p>P&#229; eftermiddagen den 15 oktober 1987 r&#246;rde sig ovanligt m&#229;nga soldater i huvudstaden. De intog strategiska positioner samtidigt som telen&#228;tet upph&#246;rde att fungera.</p><p>Thomas Sankaras n&#228;rmaste hade uppmanat honom att h&#229;lla sig i s&#228;kerhet, men f&#246;r honom kunde jobbet inte v&#228;nta. Det &#228;r sv&#229;rt att veta hur medveten Sankara var om sin utsatta position n&#228;r han satt d&#228;r i m&#246;tesrummet med sin kabinett. </p><p>Informationen om vad som h&#228;nde: den pl&#246;tsliga skottlossning utanf&#246;r som l&#228;t som &#8221;&#246;sregn p&#229; ett pl&#229;ttak&#8221; kommer fr&#229;n Alouna Traor&#233;, den enda av m&#246;tesdeltagarna som &#246;verlevde. Sedan 1987 har han konsekvent h&#229;llit sig till samma version av h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet. Hur Sankara f&#246;rs&#228;krade de andra om att han var m&#229;ltavlan och gick ut ur rummet med armarna h&#246;jda &#246;ver huvudet. Hur han knappt han g&#229; ut innan han sk&#246;ts ihj&#228;l. Hur soldater sedan stormade in i rummet och avr&#228;ttade tolv av de n&#228;rvarande. Traor&#233; sk&#246;ts ocks&#229;, och det var ett under att han klarade sig med livet i beh&#229;ll.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic" width="976" height="549" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ni7p!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdbb92470-b692-464f-8ae7-31df424a6009_976x549.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Gilbert Diend&#233;r&#233;.</figcaption></figure></div><p><br>Angriparna hade mobiliserats av Gilbert Diend&#233;r&#233;, kaptenen som kritiserats av Sankara f&#246;r sina otrohetsaff&#228;rer. Samtliga lydde under Blaise Compaor&#233;, Sankaras l&#229;ngvariga kollega och n&#228;ra v&#228;n. De hade varit s&#229; pass n&#228;ra att de ofta beskrevs som br&#246;der, under perioder hade Compaor&#233; bott hemma hos Sankara, vilket fick Sankaras fru Mariam att sk&#228;mta om att de var &#8221;co-wives&#8221;. Men nu tog Compaor&#233; &#246;ver makten i Burkina Faso. Senare p&#229; kv&#228;llen str&#246;mmade hans r&#246;st ut ur radioapparater runtom i landet. Orden var h&#229;rda och anklagande, och han utm&#229;lade Sankara som en f&#246;rr&#228;dare med storhetsvansinne.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic" width="960" height="576" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:576,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:84996,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RGaP!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e96d08f-f4d9-4602-a808-3b00aec23704_960x576.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Blaise Compaor&#233; till v&#228;nster.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det kan fortfarande diskuteras huruvida Sankara hade misst&#228;nkt att Compaor&#233; skulle f&#246;rr&#229;da honom. I historikern Brian J. Petersons <em>Thomas Sankara: A Revolutionary in Cold War Africa</em>, utgiven v&#229;ren 2021, citeras flera personer med intim inblick i h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet. N&#229;gra av dem anser att Sankara s&#229;g sin egen d&#246;d som ofr&#229;nkomlig och inte ville riskera att vara den som f&#246;rde Burkina Faso mot ett potentiellt inb&#246;rdeskrig genom att f&#246;rs&#246;ka r&#246;ja undan hotet, andra tycker att han var f&#246;r tillitsfull f&#246;r sitt eget b&#228;sta.</p><p>Under natten lastades kropparna ombord en lastbil, k&#246;rdes till en begravningsplats i ett av Ouagadougous fattigare omr&#229;den och dumpades i hastigt gr&#228;vda gravar. Sankara var bara trettiosju &#229;r gammal och revolutionen hade nyligen firat sin fyra&#229;rsdag.</p><p>Sankaras d&#246;d chockade landets inv&#229;nare. Burkina Faso m&#229; ha vant sig vid statskupper men det h&#228;r var f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen en president m&#246;rdats. Compaor&#233; f&#246;rnekade inblandning. Han p&#229;stod att hans trupper hade f&#229;tt reda p&#229; en komplott som Sankara planerade och p&#229; eget bev&#229;g begett sig till presidenten f&#246;r att arrestera honom. N&#228;r soldaterna f&#246;rs&#246;kte gripa Sankara ska han ha svarat med att &#246;ppna eld och de tvingades d&#228;rf&#246;r skjuta ihj&#228;l honom i sj&#228;lvf&#246;rsvar. Compaor&#233;s version av h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet f&#246;rkastades av alla f&#246;rutom hans mest trogna lojalister.</p><p>Frankrikes roll i mordet p&#229; Sankara har varit omdebatterad bland historiker, politiska kommentatorer och vanligt folk i b&#229;de Burkina Faso och omv&#228;rlden. Vissa har sett det som ett franskt best&#228;llningsmord medan andra har uppfattat det som crescendot av en intern konflikt. Brian J. Peterson argumenterar f&#246;r ett mellanting. Han menar att Frankrike inte deltog milit&#228;rt, men att landet medverkade till att skapa f&#246;ruts&#228;ttningarna f&#246;r kuppen, bland annat genom ekonomisk press, medial smutskastning och att s&#229; os&#228;mja inom Sankaras parti. </p><p>Flera f&#246;rs&#246;k har gjorts f&#246;r att f&#229; Frankrike att offentligg&#246;ra hemligst&#228;mplade dokument som en g&#229;ng f&#246;r alla kan bevisa landets eventuella ansvar &#8211; hittills utan framg&#229;ng.</p><p>Sankara blev en symbol f&#246;r panafrikanism, sj&#228;lvf&#246;rs&#246;rjning, anti-imperialism och antikorruption v&#228;rlden &#246;ver men smutskastades p&#229; hemmaplan. Compaor&#233; portr&#228;tterade sig sj&#228;lv som den verkliga revolution&#228;ren, den som p&#229; riktigt brydde sig om folket.</p><p>Internationellt ville Compaor&#233; d&#228;remot uppfattas som en sansad och realistisk ledare, l&#229;ngt bortom Sankaras radikala id&#233;er och &#246;ppen f&#246;r nya samarbeten med v&#228;stv&#228;rlden. Inom kort tecknades avtal med V&#228;rldsbanken och Internationella valutafonden och Compaor&#233; v&#228;lkomnades som en frisk fl&#228;kt av stormakterna i v&#228;st.</p><p>I Burkina Faso nedmonterades revolutionen. Impopul&#228;r bland majoriteten av befolkningen f&#246;rlitade sig den nya regimen p&#229; den &#246;vre medelklassen, &#228;ldre byh&#246;vdingar och de som tillh&#246;rt den politiska eliten f&#246;re 1983 &#229;rs revolution &#8211; grupper som traditionellt haft makten i landet och som Sankara gjort sig ov&#228;n med. Korruption blev &#229;terigen en del av vardagen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic" width="976" height="549" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:549,&quot;width&quot;:976,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:85756,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/171882920?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UH_i!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6b60e2e7-2d84-4925-9b91-66fb3c974941_976x549.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Blaise Compaor&#233;.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Blaise Compaor&#233; kom att regera Burkina Faso i tjugosju &#229;r, fram till 2014 d&#229; intensiva protester br&#246;t ut mot att han f&#246;rs&#246;kte &#228;ndra konstitutionen f&#246;r att f&#246;rl&#228;nga sin mandatperiod. Under demonstrationerna skanderade aktivister Sankaras namn, hans ansikte syntes p&#229; plakat och t-shirtar och hans ord citerades i tal. Till slut flydde Compaor&#233; landet och gick i exil i Elfenbenskusten. 2015 h&#246;lls en nytt presidentval som den tidigare premi&#228;rministern<strong> Roch Marc Christian Kabor&#233;</strong> vann.</p><p>Sankaras &#228;nka, familj och anh&#228;ngare hade l&#228;nge k&#228;mpat f&#246;r att st&#228;lla de skyldiga inf&#246;r r&#228;tta och med Compaor&#233; borta fick de &#228;ntligen sin chans. 2015 gr&#228;vdes Sankaras kropp upp och en obduktion bekr&#228;ftade att han tr&#228;ffats av fler &#228;n tolv kulor. I april 2021 &#229;talade en milit&#228;rdomstol i Burkina Faso slutligen Blaise Compaor&#233;, som tillsammans med 13 andra anklagades f&#246;r att ha haft en del i mordet.</p><p>I oktober det &#229;ret inleddes r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen i Compaor&#233;s fr&#229;nvaro, som svarade med att han bojkottade den och h&#228;vdade han &#229;tnj&#246;t immunitet som en f&#246;re detta statschef. Under tiden i Elfenbenskusten hade han dessutom hunnit bli medborgare d&#228;r och kunde nu inte utel&#228;mnas utan tillst&#229;nd fr&#229;n regeringen. Men sedan h&#228;nde det som satt landet i gungning <em>s&#229;</em> m&#229;nga g&#229;nger tidigare.</p><h4>En ny v&#229;g av milit&#228;rkupper</h4><p>S&#246;ndagen den 23 januari 2022 sl&#228;cktes pl&#246;tsligt mobiln&#228;tet i Burkina Faso. Skottlossning h&#246;rdes vid flera milit&#228;rbaracker runtom i landet och snart stod regeringspartiets h&#246;gkvarter i l&#229;gor. Mot kv&#228;llen avlossades flera skott i n&#228;rheten av presidentpalatset.</p><p>Dagen efter tog soldater &#246;ver den statliga radio- och tv-stationen. Timmar senare s&#228;nde de ett tal till nationen.</p><div id="youtube2-khnMxLYd3f0" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;khnMxLYd3f0&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/khnMxLYd3f0?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p><br>I klippet syntes de, fjorton soldater totalt, i sandf&#228;rgade kamouflagekl&#228;der. Vissa i r&#246;da och bl&#229;a baskrar, andra i hj&#228;lmar och ansiktsmasker. Flera av dem h&#246;ll i automatvapen. De utannonserade sig som <strong>Patriotic Movement for Safeguard</strong> and Restoration och meddelade att de avsatt presidenten Roch Marc Christian Kabor&#233; eftersom han misslyckats med att f&#229; kontroll &#246;ver s&#228;kerhetsl&#228;get i landet. </p><p>Sedan 2015 har jihadister i norra delarna av Burkina Faso utf&#246;rt attacker som resulterat i tusentals d&#246;da och n&#228;stan tv&#229; miljoner flyktingar. Liknande grupper har blivit aktiva i Mali, <strong>Tchad</strong>, n&#228;stan hela Sahelb&#228;ltet, och m&#229;nga av dem har tillg&#229;ng till vapnen som fl&#246;dade ut ur Libyen i samband med Gadaffis fall &#229;r 2011.</p><p>Under sitt tal f&#246;rklarade soldaterna parlamentet och regeringen uppl&#246;sta. Landgr&#228;nserna st&#228;ngdes och uteg&#229;ngsf&#246;rbud b&#246;rjade r&#229;da.</p><p>En dryg vecka senare inf&#246;rde soldaterna konstitutionen igen och tillsatte &#246;verstel&#246;jtnant<strong> Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba </strong>som ny president. I mars utannonserade juntan att val &#229;terigen kommer att h&#229;llas, efter en tre&#229;rig &#246;verg&#229;ngsperiod.</p><p>Det instabila l&#228;get i landet hindrade inte r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen mot Compaor&#233; att forts&#228;tta. Den 3 april 2022 d&#246;mdes han till livstids f&#228;ngelse tillsammans med tv&#229; av hans kumpaner. &#197;tta av de &#246;vriga elva &#229;talade d&#246;mdes till mellan tre och tjugo &#229;rs f&#228;ngelse, medan resterande tre frik&#228;ndes.</p><p>Trots livstidsstraffet till&#228;t den nye presidenten Compaor&#233; att &#229;terv&#228;nda till Burkina Faso f&#246;r att delta i en konferens tillsammans med flera andra f&#246;re detta ledare f&#246;r landet. Sankarafamiljens jurister beg&#228;rde att han skulle arresteras, men deras krav visades bort.</p><p>Ist&#228;llet bj&#246;d Compaor&#233; p&#229; en urs&#228;kt. I ett brev som en talesperson l&#228;ste upp f&#246;r en pressk&#229;r skrev han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Jag ber det burkinska folket om f&#246;rl&#229;telse f&#246;r alla g&#228;rningar jag kan ha beg&#229;tt under min &#228;mbetstid, och jag ber s&#228;rskilt om urs&#228;kt till min broder och v&#228;n Thomas Sankaras familj. Jag tar ansvar f&#246;r och &#229;ngrar av hela mitt hj&#228;rta lidandet och tragedierna som offren har upplevt under mitt &#228;mbete som ledare f&#246;r landet och ber deras familjer om f&#246;rl&#229;telse.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Urs&#228;kten fick blandade reaktioner. Vissa grupperingar ans&#229;g att den inte var tillr&#228;cklig, att r&#228;ttvisa inte kan skipas s&#229; l&#228;nge han g&#229;r fri. Den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen stod kampen mot jihadisterna dock i centrum och Compaor&#233; slapp undan f&#228;ngelse eftersom konferensen var t&#228;nkt att symbolisera nationell enighet i kampen mot rebellerna.</p><p>Men v&#229;ldspiralen fortsatte. Den 30 september 2022 drabbades Burkina Faso av en ny milit&#228;rkupp, den andra p&#229; ett &#229;r. Scenerna var snarlika de under f&#246;rra kuppen, med skottlossning och explosioner i huvudstaden. Precis som under den f&#246;rra uppenbarade sig sedan en grupp milit&#228;rer p&#229; tv och l&#228;ste upp sitt budskap. </p><div id="youtube2-TCzvyTSslKk" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;TCzvyTSslKk&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/TCzvyTSslKk?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>President Damiba hade misslyckats med att kv&#228;va extremisternas uppror och var d&#228;rf&#246;r avsatt. Nu kr&#228;vdes nyt&#228;nk. Ny president blev 34-&#229;rige Ibrahim Traor&#233;, f&#246;dd 1988, och som uppges ha varit chef f&#246;r en anti-jihadistisk specialstyrka. Damiba till&#228;ts att g&#229; i exil i <strong>Togo</strong>.</p><p>Den g&#229;tfulle och tillbakadragne Traor&#233; har gjort ett tungt avtryck under sin korta tid vid makten. I januari 2023 meddelade Burkina Fasos ledning att det milit&#228;ra samarbetet med Frankrike upph&#246;r och att franska trupper hade fyra veckor p&#229; sig att l&#228;mna landet. M&#229;naden d&#228;rp&#229; drog Frankrike sig tillbaka. Ist&#228;llet har Burkina Faso n&#228;rmat sig <strong>Ryssland</strong> och <strong>Turkiet</strong>.</p><p>I skrivande stund orts&#228;tter dock v&#229;ldsv&#229;gen och den humanit&#228;ra krisen f&#246;rv&#228;rras. M&#229;nga d&#246;das eller f&#246;rdrivs, och tusentals skolor har tvingats st&#228;nga p&#229; grund av otrygghet. Mer &#228;n en miljon barn har ber&#246;vats sin skolg&#229;ng.</p><p>Burkina Fasos junta, som inledningsvis lovade en &#229;terg&#229;ng till demokrati i mitten av 2024, har sagt att inga val kommer att h&#229;llas f&#246;rr&#228;n s&#228;kerheten kan garanteras. I maj meddelande juntan en fem&#229;rig f&#246;rl&#228;ngning av sitt styre, och sommaren 2025 uppl&#246;ste man den sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndiga valkommissionen f&#246;r att ist&#228;llet placera ansvaret f&#246;r &#246;versynen hos inrikesdepartementet. Ett drag som ytterligare konsoliderar makten &#246;ver valprocessen under milit&#228;ren.</p><p>Det &#229;terst&#229;r allts&#229; att se om jihadisterna kan besegras och, i s&#229; fall, om milit&#228;rerna &#228;r villiga att l&#228;mna tillbaka makten till folket.</p><h4>Sankaras arv</h4><p>Finns det n&#229;t som en god eller godhj&#228;rtad diktator? Vissa skulle s&#228;ga att Thomas Sankara var ett exempel p&#229; en. Eller att han var s&#229; n&#228;ra man kan komma. Andra skulle s&#228;ga att hans str&#228;nga kompromissl&#246;shet visade prov p&#229; en auktorit&#228;r sida som redan d&#229; hade b&#246;rjat, och med tiden skulle forts&#228;tta, utmynna i ett maktmissbruk.<br><br>Lord Acton, en brittisk historiker, &#228;r k&#228;nd f&#246;r ett brev han skickade till en brittisk biskop &#229;r 1887. I brevet skrev han:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Makt tenderar att korrumpera och absolut makt korrumperar absolut&#8221;.</em><br></p></blockquote><p>Det &#228;r naturligtvis om&#246;jligt att att veta vad som skulle ha h&#228;nt om Sankara inte hade m&#246;rdats. Och &#229;t vilken riktning han hade utvecklats.</p><p>Men en sak &#228;r uppenbar: under ett 1980-tal d&#228;r m&#229;nga andra afrikanska ledare s&#229;g ut att t&#228;vla i korruption och berikade sig sj&#228;lva p&#229; sina l&#228;nders bekostnad, gick Sankara en annan v&#228;g och lyckades p&#229; kort tid ingjuta stolthet, sj&#228;lvf&#246;rtroende och hopp om sj&#228;lvf&#246;rs&#246;rjning.</p><div><hr></div><h4><strong>L&#228;s mer:</strong></h4><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>Women's Liberation and the African Freedom Struggle </em>av Thomas Sankara (2007)</p><p><em>Thomas Sankara: An African Revolutionary</em><strong> </strong>av Ernest Harsch (2014)</p><p><em>A Certain Amount of Madness: The Life, Politics and Legacies of Thomas Sankara </em>av Amber Murrey, redakt&#246;r (2018)</p><p><em>Thomas Sankara: A Revolutionary in Cold War Africa </em>av Brian J. Peterson (2021)</p><p><strong>Journalistiska artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;13 killed in coup in Upper Volta&#8221; i <em>New York Times </em>(6 augusti 1983)</p><p>&#8221;Africa&#8217;s &#8217;upright people&#8217;: Still has no clear answers&#8221; av Alan Cowell f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(9 januari 1985)</p><p>&#8221;Young Voice in Africa: Sports and Clean Living&#8221; av James Brooke f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(23 augusti 1987)</p><p>&#8221;A friendship dies in a bloody coup&#8221; av James Brooke f&#246;r <em>New York Times </em>(26 oktober 1987)</p><p>&#8221;Sankara: daring to invent Africa&#8217;s future&#8221; av Sean Jacobs f&#246;r <em>The Guardian </em>(15 oktober 2008)</p><p>&#8221;Burkina Faso&#8217;s revolutionary hero Thomas Sankara to be exhumed&#8221; av David Smith f&#246;r <em>The Guardian </em>(6 mars 2015)</p><p>&#8221;Thomas Sankara: Body of Africa&#8217;s Che Guevara riddled with bullets, autopsy reveals three decades after death&#8221; av Ludovica Iaccino f&#246;r <em>International Business Times </em>(14 oktober 2015)</p><p>&#8221;Burkina Faso &#8217;wants France to release Sankara archives&#8217;&#8221; p&#229; BBC (13 oktober 2016)</p><p>&#8221;Thomas Sankara and the Revolutionary Birth of Burkina Faso&#8221; av Mamadou Diallo f&#246;r <em>Viewpoint Magazine </em>(1 februari 2018)</p><p>&#8221;Thomas Sankara had two faces &#8211; Jean-Baptiste Ou&#233;draogo&#8221; av A&#239;ssatou Diallo f&#246;r <em>The Africa Report </em>(4 mars 2020)</p><p>&#8221;Burkinabe ex-President Compaore charged in Thomas Sankara murder&#8221; av Henry Wilkins f&#246;r <em>al &#173;Jazeera </em>(13 april 2021)</p><p>&#8221;Burkina Fasos st&#246;rtade president &#229;talas f&#246;r mordet p&#229; sin f&#246;retr&#228;dare&#8221; av Erik Esbj&#246;rnsson f&#246;r <em>Dagens Nyheter </em>(14 april 2021)</p><p><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar:</strong></p><p>&#8221;Ideology and Praxis in Thomas Sankara&#8217;s Populist Revolution of 4 August 1983 in Burkina Faso&#8221; av Guy Martin i <em>Issue: A Journal of Opinion </em>(vol. 15, 1987)</p><p>&#8221;Sankara and the Burkinabe Revolution: Charisma and Power, Local and External Dimensions&#8221; av Elliott P. Skinner i <em>The Journal of Modern African Studies </em>(vol. 26, nr 3, 1988)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Folkmordet i Gazas historiska paralleller]]></title><description><![CDATA[F&#246;rnekelse och p&#229;tvingad sv&#228;lt d&#229; och nu]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/folkmordet-i-gazas-historiska-paralleller</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/folkmordet-i-gazas-historiska-paralleller</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 24 Jul 2025 10:51:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!V9sh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b7da43-294e-4ff8-a489-8a46ba09772b_1536x1953.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">G&#229;rdagens omslag av den brittiska nyhetstidningen Daily Express.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Listan kan naturligtvis g&#246;ras &#228;nnu l&#228;ngre men n&#228;r jag t&#228;nker p&#229; det lives&#228;nda folkmordet i <strong>Gaza</strong> &#228;r det tv&#229; historiska paralleller som dyker upp f&#246;rst.</p><p>Folkmordsf&#246;rnekarna &#8211; de som hellre f&#246;rd&#246;mer demonstranter &#228;n israeliska ministrar som rakt ut s&#228;ger att de ska f&#246;rg&#246;ra Gaza, eller som uppr&#246;rs mer &#246;ver slogans och konstverk &#228;n tiotusentals m&#246;rdade och desto fler leml&#228;stade civila &#8211; kastar mig tillbaka till v&#229;ren 2004, d&#229; jag som 17-&#229;ringen f&#246;r f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen l&#228;ste <strong>Philip Gourevitchs </strong><em>We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families</em>, en bok om folkmordet i <strong>Rwanda</strong>.</p><p>En av flera minnesv&#228;rda passager var den om hur <strong>Bill Clinton</strong>-administrationen l&#228;nge f&#246;rbj&#246;d sina anst&#228;llda fr&#229;n att beskriva katastrofen som ett folkmord:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zOAd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5c676bf3-a0b1-4410-8d95-003f4db4d378_756x584.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic" width="780" height="526" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:526,&quot;width&quot;:780,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:67395,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/169043787?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!O1tW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fca411082-cf16-4545-b44c-db5abfd492d6_780x526.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p><em>New York Times </em>rapporterade om det redan n&#228;r det begav sig. Det h&#228;r citatet &#228;r fr&#229;n en artikel publicerad i tidningen den 10 juni 1994:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;I ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att undvika &#246;kad moraliskt grundad press att stoppa massmorden i Rwanda har Clintonadministrationen instruerat sina talespersoner att inte beskriva d&#246;dsfallen d&#228;r som folkmord, trots att vissa h&#246;gt uppsatta tj&#228;nstem&#228;n anser att det &#228;r precis vad de representerar.</em></p><p><em>Det beslutet har gjort administrationen oense med FN:s generalsekreterare och en grupp framst&#229;ende experter som s&#228;ger att det inte r&#229;der n&#229;gon tvekan om att v&#229;ldet, som s&#228;gs ha d&#246;dat minst 200 000 m&#228;nniskor och kanske s&#229; m&#229;nga som 400 000, &#228;r en del av den avsiktliga och utbredda utrotningen av en folkgrupp.</em></p><p><em>Men amerikanska tj&#228;nstem&#228;n s&#228;ger att en s&#229; tydlig st&#228;mpel skulle kunna provocera fram offentliga krav p&#229; &#229;tg&#228;rder som administrationen &#228;r ovillig att vidta. Ist&#228;llet f&#246;r att j&#228;mf&#246;ra massakern med till exempel d&#246;dsfallen under R&#246;da Khmererna i Kambodja har utrikesdepartementet och nationella s&#228;kerhetsr&#229;det utarbetat riktlinjer som instruerar talespersoner att endast s&#228;ga att &#8217;folkmordshandlingar kan ha intr&#228;ffat&#8217;.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Naiv som jag var d&#229;, ungdomligt &#246;vertygad om att de gr&#246;vsta av m&#228;nniskans kapitel l&#229;g bakom oss, kunde jag knappt f&#246;rest&#228;lla mig en v&#228;rld som skulle till&#229;ta det att h&#228;nda igen.</p><p>Men nu st&#229;r vi h&#228;r &#228;nnu en g&#229;ng. Och v&#229;r patetiska svenska regering har f&#246;rst nu, i juli 2025, b&#246;rjat prata om att &#8221;mana p&#229;&#8221; f&#246;r att EU ska &#8221;se &#246;ver&#8221; <a href="https://omni.se/utrikesministern-vill-inte-bryta-eu-avtal-med-israel/a/Oox1mO">associationsavtalet med Israel</a>. Men naturligtvis bara en del av det. Att helt riva det kommer inte p&#229; tal.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic" width="1400" height="1658" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1658,&quot;width&quot;:1400,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:187544,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/169043787?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Ts4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dde90a8-1b7d-4545-b9ca-cbd2e169496c_1400x1658.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#196;ven om man <em>enbart</em> skulle utg&#229; fr&#229;n saker som h&#228;nt sedan h&#246;sten 2023 (vilket man inte b&#246;r) &#228;r det h&#228;r n&#229;got som regeringen, om den ens varit n&#229;gorlunda potent, borde f&#246;rt fram typ andra veckan i oktober det &#229;ret, n&#228;r det var alldeles uppenbart vad Israel var p&#229; v&#228;g att g&#246;ra med Gaza. </p><p>De israeliska ministrarna var ju &#246;ppna med det fr&#229;n b&#246;rjan: allt prat om palestinier som <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/israel-paints-palestinians-as-animals-to-legitimize-war-crimes-israeli-scholar/3030278">&#8221;m&#228;nskliga djur&#8221;</a>, allt snack om att palestinier b&#228;r<a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/israel-posts-video-saying-are-no-innocent-civilians-gaza-rcna157111"> kollektivt ansvar</a> f&#246;r 7 oktober, l&#246;ftena om att <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/10/09/israel-defense-minister-orders-complete-siege-on-gaza-strip_6158600_4.html">strypa tillg&#229;ngen till mat, vatten och medicin</a>, fantasierna om att <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/israeli-minister-renews-call-for-striking-gaza-with-nuclear-bomb-/3117351">atombomba Gaza</a>, dr&#246;mmarna om att <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/knesset-votes-71-13-for-non-binding-motion-calling-to-annex-west-bank/">annektera allt st&#246;rre delar av Palestina</a>.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><p>Det &#228;r f&#246;r sent f&#246;r verkningsl&#246;sa ord fr&#229;n svenska ministrar, floskler om att de &#8221;driver p&#229;&#8221; Israel att sl&#228;ppa in n&#246;dhj&#228;lp eller &#8221;manar&#8221; Israel om att v&#228;rna internationell r&#228;tt. Svidande sanktioner. Omedelbar bojkott. Fullst&#228;ndig isolering. En regelr&#228;tt intervention? Det &#228;r vad som beh&#246;vs.</p><p>F&#246;r just nu sv&#228;lts Gazas resterande befolkning medvetet ihj&#228;l av Israel. Medan de palestinier som v&#229;gar sig ut till de nyinr&#228;ttade distribueringscentren riskerar att bli offer i de n&#228;stan dagliga massakrerna.</p><p><a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ce9xkx7vnmxo">Ig&#229;r varnade &#246;ver 100 hj&#228;lporganisationer</a>, d&#228;ribland <strong>R&#228;dda Barnen</strong> och <strong>L&#228;kare utan gr&#228;nser</strong>, f&#246;r att massv&#228;lten kommer att spridas okontrollerat om inte omv&#228;rlden agerar. Men obegripligt nog, om&#228;nskligt nog, saknas den &#8221;politiska viljan&#8221;.</p><p>M&#229;nga historiska folkmord har full&#228;ndats, inte fr&#228;mst med vapen, utan genom g&#228;rningsm&#228;nnens skapande av s&#229;na fasansfulla f&#246;rh&#229;llanden att hunger och sjukdomar blir de slutgiltiga b&#246;dlarna.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic" width="1024" height="659" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:659,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:111500,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/169043787?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Shwb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F01e9ee3f-651f-42f9-aab6-25c87fd93bc1_1024x659.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Tyska soldater i Tyska Sydv&#228;stafrika, dagens Namibia.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Ta <strong>Tysklands folkmord i Namibia 1904-1908 </strong>som exempel. Tyskarnas kolonisering av omr&#229;det inleddes p&#229; 1880-talet och den v&#229;ldsamma behandlingen av lokalbefolkningen utmynnade i att tv&#229; folkgrupper, <strong>nama</strong> och <strong>herero</strong>, gjorde v&#228;pnat motst&#229;nd.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic" width="597" height="903" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/be4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:903,&quot;width&quot;:597,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:218604,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/169043787?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lC-0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbe4d3a45-1069-4334-a8fb-69020ed5ad1f_597x903.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Lothar von Trotha, ledaren f&#246;r Tyska Sydv&#228;stafrikas trupper.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I juni 1904 anl&#228;nde general <strong>Lothar von Trotha</strong>, en veteran i tyskarnas koloniala arm&#233;. Med sig hade han 6000 soldater, fler &#228;n det fanns tyska nybyggare i kolonin, och en &#246;vertygelse om att motst&#229;ndet endast kunde krossas genom terror. I <strong>Martin Merediths</strong> <em>The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor </em>citeras ett av Von Trothas uttalanden:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Jag k&#228;nner tillr&#228;ckligt m&#229;nga stammar i Afrika. De &#228;r sig lika p&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt att det enda som f&#229;r dem att ge vika &#228;r v&#229;ld. Min policy har varit och kommer forts&#228;tta att vara att bruka v&#229;ld genom ren terror och till och med grymhet. Jag ska f&#246;rinta de rebelliska stammarna genom att utgjuta en str&#246;m av blod och pengar. Endast d&#229; kommer det att vara m&#246;jligt att s&#229; n&#229;gonting nytt och best&#229;ende.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Och visst skedde regelr&#228;tta strider. Herero- och namaklanerna lyckades till och med vinna vissa slag. Men de moderna tyska vapnen &#8211; artilleri och kulsprutor &#8211; blev till slut &#246;verm&#228;ktiga.</p><p>Efter en avg&#246;rande strid vid Waterberg sommaren 1904 tvingades 50 000 hereroer, de allra flesta civila, ut i Kalahari&#246;knen. Tyskarna jagade efter och avr&#228;ttade s&#229; m&#229;nga eftersl&#228;ntrare som m&#246;jligt. Men eftersom de inte skulle hinna ifatt alla och deras egna vattenransoner var p&#229; v&#228;g att ta slut, fattade von Trotha beslutet att sp&#228;rra av alla k&#228;nda vattenh&#229;l och att bevaka gr&#228;nsen till &#246;knen. De hereroer som &#229;terv&#228;nde eller f&#246;rs&#246;kte upps&#246;ka k&#228;llorna skulle skjutas p&#229; plats.</p><p>Det flyende hererofolket dog fort, de allra flesta av t&#246;rst. Frenetiskt gr&#228;vde de h&#229;l i marken i hopp om att hitta vatten och de hade bara torra buskage som skydd mot de kalla n&#228;tterna. D&#246;da m&#228;nniskor och boskap l&#229;g utspridda som str&#246;ssel l&#228;ngs riktningen de f&#228;rdades.</p><p>Men von Trotha var inte n&#246;jd. I b&#246;rjan p&#229; oktober 1904 utf&#228;rdade han &#8220;Vernichtungsbefehl&#8221;, utrotningsordern:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Jag, den store generalen f&#246;r de tyska trupperna, adresserar hererofolket med detta brev. Hereroerna &#228;r inte l&#228;ngre tyska subjekt ... Hereroerna m&#229;ste l&#228;mna landet. Annars kommer jag att tvinga dem med vapen. Inom de tyska gr&#228;nserna kommer varje herero, bev&#228;pnad eller obev&#228;pnad, med eller utan boskap, att skjutas.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Patruller formades f&#246;r att leta r&#228;tt p&#229; hereroer som fortfarande befann sig i kolonin, dels de som &#246;verlevt slaget vid Waterberg men inte lyckats fly in i &#246;knen, dels de 20000- till 30000 hereroer som var bosatta p&#229; andra h&#229;ll i landet. De samlades ihop och sk&#246;ts, stacks ihj&#228;l, br&#228;ndes inne eller h&#228;ngdes. Varken kvinnor, barn eller &#228;ldre skonades. </p><p>Ibland lurades hereroer fram med f&#246;rs&#228;kringar om att de var i s&#228;kerhet, f&#246;r att minuter senare massakreras. Trots att utrotningsordern bara g&#228;llde hereroer hade tyska soldater ibland sv&#229;rt att skilja p&#229; lokalbefolkningen och medlemmar av andra folkslag d&#246;dades ocks&#229;.</p><p>Av ekonomiska sk&#228;l fanns det dock makthavare i Tyskland som s&#229;g v&#228;rdet i att h&#229;lla hererofolket vid liv som billig arbetskraft. I b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1905 byggdes d&#228;rf&#246;r anstalter som kom att inhysa inf&#229;ngade hereroer, majoriteten kvinnor och barn. M&#228;ngder av hereroer som &#246;verlevt perioden i vildmarken genom att &#228;ta insekter och r&#246;tter &#246;verl&#228;mnade sig sj&#228;lva. De sv&#228;ltande benranglen stapplade fram och f&#246;ll ihop framf&#246;r soldaternas st&#246;vlar.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic" width="933" height="612" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:612,&quot;width&quot;:933,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:170137,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/169043787?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oexX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25247e8d-93ab-457a-bec0-56d46a5f3d09_933x612.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">N&#229;gra av de f&#229; herero som &#246;verlevde flykten genom &#246;knen.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Platserna de f&#246;rdes till var rena koncentrationsl&#228;ger. Eller <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/jul/13/israel-humanitarian-city-rafah-gaza-camp-ehud-olmert">&#8221;humanit&#228;ra st&#228;der&#8221; </a>som israeliska ministrar kanske hade kallat det idag. Enheterna l&#229;g i n&#228;rheten av tyska bos&#228;ttningar s&#229; att f&#229;ngarna skulle finnas till hands f&#246;r diverse arbeten, som att anl&#228;gga t&#229;gr&#228;ls, bygga v&#228;gar eller lasta av och p&#229; fartygstransporter. M&#229;nga hyrdes &#228;ven ut till f&#246;retag eller privatpersoner, som anv&#228;nde dem i hush&#229;llet eller som f&#228;ltarbetare.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic" width="850" height="500" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:500,&quot;width&quot;:850,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:113948,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/169043787?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QTRk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96cae589-48e3-4976-9a11-03e2e94c8b02_850x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Hererof&#229;ngar.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I l&#228;gren tr&#228;ngdes de ihop i &#246;verfulla salar omg&#228;rdade av taggtr&#229;d, de fick endast lite okokt ris och mj&#246;l till mat och tvingades jobba fr&#229;n att solen gick upp till l&#229;ngt in p&#229; natten, hela tiden utsatta f&#246;r kroppsbestraffning. <strong>Heinrich Vedder</strong>, en tysk mission&#228;r som bes&#246;kte l&#228;gret vid hamnstaden Swakopmund, vittnade om att f&#229;ngarna <em>&#8221;drevs till d&#246;den som om de vore boskap, och som boskap blev de ocks&#229; begravda&#8221;</em>.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/folkmordet-i-gazas-historiska-paralleller?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/folkmordet-i-gazas-historiska-paralleller?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Terrorn var metodisk och tj&#228;nade ett syfte, n&#229;got som framg&#229;r i ett brev skrivet av Tyska Sydv&#228;stafrikas viceguvern&#246;r <strong>Hans Tecklenburg</strong> och som citeras i <strong>David Olusoga</strong> och <strong>Casper W. Erichsens</strong> <em>Kejsarens f&#246;rintelse Tysklands bortgl&#246;mda folkmord</em>:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;Ju mer hereroerna genom sina egna kroppar f&#229;r uppleva konsekvenserna av upproret, desto mindre kommer de f&#246;ljande generationerna vara ben&#228;gna till revolt ... De framtida generationerna, som m&#246;jligtvis kommer att vara n&#229;got uppblandade med damarablod, kommer p&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt redan med br&#246;stmj&#246;lken insupa en underl&#228;gsenhet i f&#246;rh&#229;llande till den vita rasen.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>H&#246;sten 1905 utlyste von Trotha en liknande utrotningsorder riktad mot namafolket som gick samma &#246;de till m&#246;tes i koncentrationsl&#228;gren. N&#228;r tyskarna var klara hade de haft ihj&#228;l upp till 80 procent av hererofolket och omkring h&#228;lften av namafolket.</p><p>&#8221;Hur kunde det h&#228;nda&#8221; var fr&#229;gan jag st&#228;llde mig d&#229;, som en aningsl&#246;s ton&#229;ring. Idag vet jag.</p><p>Vi har i snart tv&#229; &#229;rs tid sett hur Israel j&#228;mnat Gaza med marken, m&#246;rdat n&#228;stan 60000 m&#228;nniskor och skapat en hel generation av barn utan armar, ben och f&#246;r&#228;ldrar. Nu sv&#228;lter de aktivt de som hittills &#246;verlevt och &#228;r i f&#228;rd att f&#246;rverkliga dr&#246;mmarna om en fullst&#228;ndig etnisk utrustning av palestinierna. Allt medan kamerorna rullat och v&#229;ra politiker l&#229;tit det ske.</p><p>&#8221;Hur kunde det h&#228;nda?&#8221; borde f&#246;r evigt vara diskvalificerad som en genuin fr&#229;ga.</p><div><hr></div><h4><strong>L&#228;s mer: </strong></h4><p><em>Let Us Die Fighting </em>av Horst Drechsler (1966)  </p><p><em>Kejsarens f&#246;rintelse: Tysklands bortgl&#246;mda folkmord av David Olusoga och Casper W. Erichsen (2014)</em></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Diddy-rättegången – Allt om den explosiva första veckan]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#197;talet, relationen med Cassie, the freak-offs, vittnesf&#246;rh&#246;ren samt f&#246;rsvarets och &#229;klagarsidans respektive strategier.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/diddy-rattegangen-allt-om-den-explosiva</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/diddy-rattegangen-allt-om-den-explosiva</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 17 May 2025 13:11:30 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>M&#229;ndagen den 12 maj h&#246;lls slutligen &#246;ppningsanf&#246;randena i r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen mot musikmogulen<strong> Sean &#8221;Diddy&#8221; Combs</strong> i New York. Den har omg&#228;rdats av ett hysteriskt medieuppb&#229;d och f&#246;rv&#228;ntas p&#229;g&#229; i upp till &#229;tta veckor. H&#228;r kommer en sammanfattning om vad &#229;talet handlar om samt vad som utspelade sig under den f&#246;rsta veckan.</p><p><em>(Obs, den h&#228;r texten inneh&#229;ller detaljer om det som har framkommit hittills under r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen. Det r&#246;r sig om kvinnov&#229;ld och sexuella &#246;vergrepp. Tycker man att det &#228;r f&#246;r obehagligt att l&#228;sa om &#228;r nu ett bra tillf&#228;lle att klicka sig bort.) </em></p><div><hr></div><iframe class="spotify-wrap podcast" data-attrs="{&quot;image&quot;:&quot;https://i.scdn.co/image/ab6765630000ba8a0d2a747e4eccd9a8d48ca287&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;En grej till: Demonen Diddy, del 2 &#8211; R&#228;tteg&#229;ngen&quot;,&quot;subtitle&quot;:&quot;Jonathan Rollins &amp; Amat Levin&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Episode&quot;,&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://open.spotify.com/episode/3BrYwrXpKsF0VX71BEe3bl&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;noScroll&quot;:false}" src="https://open.spotify.com/embed/episode/3BrYwrXpKsF0VX71BEe3bl" frameborder="0" gesture="media" allowfullscreen="true" allow="encrypted-media" data-component-name="Spotify2ToDOM"></iframe><p>Om du f&#246;redrar att lyssna har jag spelat in en poddversion av den h&#228;r texten.</p><div><hr></div><h1><strong>Vad anklagas Diddy f&#246;r?</strong></h1><p>&#197;talet rymmer fem punkter. Diddy st&#229;r anklagad f&#246;r tv&#229; fall av m&#228;nniskohandel f&#246;r sexuella &#228;ndam&#229;l, tv&#229; fall av transport av personer i prostitutionssyfte samt &#8221;racketeering&#8221; &#8211; en bred term som ofta anv&#228;nds f&#246;r att beskriva en verksamhet som kan knytas till organiserad brottslighet. </p><p>&#197;klagarsidan argumenterar att Diddy har drivit ett kriminellt n&#228;tverk som i decennier sysslat med m&#228;nniskohandeln och prostitutionen. Han riskerar livstids f&#228;ngelse om han d&#246;ms.</p><p>Diddy st&#229;r <em>inte</em> &#229;talad f&#246;r den, av s&#228;kerhetskameror filmade, fysiska misshandeln av hans d&#229;varande flickv&#228;n <strong>Cassie Ventura </strong>som &#228;gde rum p&#229; The InterContinental Hotel i Los Angeles &#229;r 2016. Det beror fr&#228;mst p&#229; Kaliforniens lagar om preskriptionstid.</p><p>D&#228;remot var det den misshandeln som Cassie anm&#228;lde Diddy f&#246;r i november 2023 i civildomstol. De civila domstolsprocesserna sker mellan privatpersoner och i dem kan f&#228;ngelsestraff inte delas ut &#8211; endast monet&#228;r kompensation. </p><p>Det dr&#246;jde bara ett dygn efter att anm&#228;lan blivit offentlig till att parterna n&#229;dde en f&#246;rlikning, och i den nu p&#229;g&#229;ende r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen fick vi reda p&#229; summan: 20 miljoner dollar.</p><p>Att partnerna redan har f&#246;rlikat &#229;talet kring misshandeln 2016 &#228;r f&#246;rklaringen till att Diddy och hans f&#246;rsvar <em>erk&#228;nner</em> att han var v&#229;ldsam vid det tillf&#228;llet. De vet ju att han inte st&#229;r &#229;talad f&#246;r h&#228;ndelsen nu och d&#228;rf&#246;r inte kan d&#246;mas en g&#229;ng till f&#246;r den.</p><p>Dock: &#228;ven om han inte kan d&#246;mas f&#246;r just den misshandeln anv&#228;nder &#229;klagarsidan &#228;nd&#229; videon som bevis, f&#246;r att understryka att v&#229;ld var en stor del av deras relation och att de s&#229; kallade <em>freak-offs </em>som Cassie tvingades vara del av skedde under v&#229;ld eller hot om v&#229;ld.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><h1><strong>Hur svarar Diddy p&#229; anklagelserna?</strong></h1><p>Diddy har &#228;ndrat sin version i takt med att mer information har sipprat ur. I december 2023, strax efter att han n&#229;dde sin f&#246;rlikning med Cassie, nekade han till alla anklagelser och h&#228;vdade att anklagelserna var individers f&#246;rs&#246;k att f&#229; en snabb payday.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic" width="640" height="640" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:640,&quot;width&quot;:640,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:33722,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D-aD!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fce29a1fd-48ac-41a5-9dad-677aeb08b76b_640x640.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Diddys Instagram- och Twitter-inl&#228;gg fr&#229;n den 6 december 2023.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Men ett par m&#229;nader senare, i maj 2024, l&#228;ckte <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vchsn2mNlFQ">videoupptagningen p&#229; misshandeln av Cassie</a>. D&#229; laddade en m&#228;rkbart stressad Diddy upp en video p&#229; Instagram d&#228;r erk&#228;nde misshandeln, men f&#246;rnekade &#246;vriga anklagelser. Han h&#228;vdade att misshandeln skedde under en &#8221;m&#246;rk period&#8221; d&#228;r han &#8221;n&#229;tt botten&#8221;, och att han sedan dess s&#246;kt hj&#228;lp. </p><div id="youtube2-4Q3jjBUJzQk" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;4Q3jjBUJzQk&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/4Q3jjBUJzQk?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>Han nekar till alla anklagelser han st&#229;r &#229;talad f&#246;r under denna r&#228;tteg&#229;ng.</p><h1><strong>Har inte &#246;ver 100 personer anklagat Diddy f&#246;r &#246;vergrepp?</strong></h1><p>Det &#228;r sammanlagt 120 personer som har anklagat Diddy f&#246;r olika typer av sexuella &#246;vergrepp. Vissa av anklagelserna har dock bara framf&#246;rts till media, andra &#228;r &#228;n s&#229; l&#228;nge bara i f&#246;runders&#246;kningsfasen. Majoriteten av dem sker separat i civildomstol och det &#228;r bara en handfull av de vittnena som &#228;r del av det h&#228;r federala &#229;talat.</p><h1><strong>Vad var freak-offs?</strong></h1><p>Freak-offs &#228;r namnet som Diddy sj&#228;lv anv&#228;nde f&#246;r de drogfyllda sexfester han anordnat sedan &#229;tminstone b&#246;rjan p&#229; 00-talet. Dessa fester kunde intr&#228;ffa efter hans mer st&#228;dade k&#228;ndisfester. Freak-offsen verkar ofta ha &#228;gt rum <em>efter</em> efterfesterna, som en tredje fas eller n&#229;gon form av kulmination.</p><p>Det &#228;r en viktig detalj eftersom det understryker att inte alla k&#228;ndisar som synts p&#229; n&#229;got av hans events automatiskt ocks&#229; har deltagit i the freak-offs. Det &#228;r fullt m&#246;jligt f&#246;r en person att ha varit med p&#229;, exempelvis, Diddys White Party i The Hamptons utan att ha varit med p&#229; den efterf&#246;ljande orgien. <br><br>Sj&#228;lvklart kan det dock komma att avsl&#246;jas att &#228;ven andra k&#228;ndisar har deltagit i sexfesterna, men det &#228;r &#228;n s&#229; l&#228;nge bara spekulationer.</p><p>Misshandeln av Cassie 2016 som f&#229;ngades p&#229; film ska ha intr&#228;ffat n&#228;r hon, klockan 11 p&#229; f&#246;rmiddagen, f&#246;rs&#246;kte l&#228;mna en freak-off.</p><h1><strong>Hur tr&#228;ffades Cassie och Diddy?</strong></h1><p>Cassie och Diddy tr&#228;ffades 2006, och det var i den vevan han signade henne till ett kontrakt med hans skivbolag Bad Boy. Hon var d&#229; bara en 19-&#229;ring med dr&#246;mmar om att bli artist, medan han redan var 36-37 &#229;r. Han var ocks&#229; redan d&#229; en multimiljon&#228;r och en av underh&#229;llningsbranschens m&#228;ktigaste m&#228;n. </p><p>Diddy satt dessutom redan p&#229; ett v&#229;ldskapital och det hade ryktats om hans v&#229;ldsamma natur sedan &#229;tminstone slutet p&#229; 1990-talet. Den maktdynamiken mellan Diddy och Cassie g&#229;r som en r&#246;d tr&#229;d genom hela deras relation.<br><br>Sin vana trogen signerade Diddy Cassie till ett exploaterande skivkontrakt. Hon skrev p&#229; f&#246;r att sl&#228;ppa tio album, en bisarrt h&#246;g siffra, och det &#228;r inget vilt antagande att maktdynamiken spelade stor roll &#228;ven h&#228;r. 19 &#229;r gammal, ny i branschen och eventuellt f&#246;rblindad av Diddys stj&#228;rnglas, saknade hon antagligen kunskap om vad ett s&#229;dant l&#229;ngt kontrakt innebar.</p><p>Genom att skriva p&#229; f&#246;r tio album gav hon Diddy total kontroll &#246;ver hennes kreativa framtid och h&#228;danefter skulle det vara upp till honom och hans skivbolag huruvida hon ens skulle f&#229; ge ut musik. Och mycket riktigt: trots att hon spelade in hundratals l&#229;tar fick hon bara sl&#228;ppa ett enda album: hennes debutskiva <em>Cassie</em>, som gavs ut sommaren 2006.</p><p>Strax d&#228;refter, under 2007, b&#246;rjade de dejta, men relationen h&#246;lls hemlig under de f&#246;rsta &#229;ren. De var ihop, till och fr&#229;n, &#228;nda till 2018.</p><h1><strong>R&#228;tteg&#229;ngen &#8211; dag 1</strong></h1><p>Det var i m&#229;ndags den 12 maj som &#229;klagarsidan gjorde sitt &#246;ppningsanf&#246;rande. De radade upp och ramade in anklagelserna, och gav &#228;ven prov p&#229; vilka explicita detaljer som vittnesm&#229;len skulle inneh&#229;lla &#8211; exempelvis genom att h&#228;nvisa till ett tillf&#228;lle d&#229; Diddy ska ha tvingat en manlig prostituerad att kissa i Cassies mun. </p><p>Under sessionerna med manliga prostituerade som Cassie tvingades delta i h&#228;vdade &#229;klagarna att Diddy tittade p&#229;, regisserade, onanerade, refererade till sig sj&#228;lv som &#8220;kungen&#8221; och ofta filmade allt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic" width="1200" height="900" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pqrT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42543d07-6af6-4388-8cdb-810f76947276_1200x900.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Kameror &#228;r inte till&#229;tna p&#229; r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen. Ist&#228;llet anv&#228;nds r&#228;tteg&#229;ngstecknare. Sketch: Jane Rosenberg/ Reuters.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Diddy syntes, antagligen f&#246;r f&#246;rsta g&#229;ngen, i gr&#229;tt h&#229;r. De sv&#229;ra f&#246;rh&#229;llandena i h&#228;ktet spelar s&#228;kert in, och medier som New York Times och BBC har rapporterat att han <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/13/arts/music/sean-diddy-combs-jail.html">inte har tillg&#229;ng till h&#229;rf&#228;rg</a> d&#228;r han sitter.</p><p>Men jag upplever det samtidigt som en strategi. B&#229;de<strong> Harvey Weinstein </strong>och <strong>Bill Cosby </strong>s&#229;g h&#228;rjade ut n&#228;r de anl&#228;nde til sina r&#228;tteg&#229;ngar. Kanske &#228;r det ett led i att v&#228;cka sympati? Att framst&#229; som gammal, vek och ofarlig?</p><p>Efter &#246;ppningsanf&#246;randet f&#246;ljde tv&#229; f&#246;rh&#246;r med &#229;klagarsidans vittnen:</p><h4><strong>Vittne 1: Israel Florez</strong></h4><p>Florez var s&#228;kerhetsvakt p&#229; hotellet d&#228;r Diddy misshandlade Cassie 2016. Florez ber&#228;ttade att han fick h&#246;ra om att n&#229;got p&#229;gick p&#229; en v&#229;ning i hotellet och &#229;kte dit. N&#228;r han klev ut ur hissen s&#229;g han en uppjagad Diddy i bara handduk och en skadad Cassie som l&#229;g hopkrupen p&#229; golvet.</p><blockquote><p><em>Florez: &#8221;As soon as I walked out, the best way I can describe it is a devilish stare. He was just looking at me &#8230; looking at me with no movement.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Florez sa att han f&#246;rs&#246;kte f&#229; dem att g&#229; &#229;t olika h&#229;ll och att han f&#246;rs&#246;ka lugna ner Diddy. Han h&#228;vdade ocks&#229; att Diddy erbj&#246;d honom pengar, n&#229;got som Florez tolkade som en muta. </p><p>Han tog inte emot pengarna, utan f&#246;rs&#228;krade Diddy om att hotellet inte ville g&#246;ra en st&#246;rre grej av det och att han skulle se till att inga fler st&#246;rningsmoment intr&#228;ffade tills han checkade ut.</p><h4><strong>Vittne 2: Daniel Phillip</strong></h4><p>Det andra vittnet var en manlig prostituerad vid namn Daniel Phillip. Han vittnade om att han fick upp till 6000 dollar f&#246;r att ha sex med Cassie medan Diddy tittade p&#229; och regisserade. De l&#228;ngsta sessionerna kunde p&#229;g&#229; i upp till tio timmar, och om Diddy inte blev n&#246;jd kunde han v&#228;gra betala.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic" width="1456" height="820" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:820,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:457020,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jhik!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2401512e-74b2-4774-a5a3-e2afdd3b6be4_1864x1050.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Daniel Phillip. R&#228;tteg&#229;ngsteckning: Jane Rosenberg/Reuters. </figcaption></figure></div><p>De tv&#229; sista tillf&#228;llena ska ha slutat med att Diddy misshandlade Cassie framf&#246;r Philips.</p><blockquote><p><em>Philip: &#8220;I asked her why is she staying with this guy if he&#8217;s hitting her and beating her like this. I tried to explain to her that she&#8217;s in real danger if she stays with him. She basically tried to convince me that, &#8216;It&#8217;s OK, I&#8217;m OK,&#8217; .&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Philip p&#229;stod att han inte anm&#228;lde h&#228;ndelserna av r&#228;dsla f&#246;r vad som skulle h&#228;nda han och Cassie. Han h&#228;vdade &#228;ven att Diddy tog foton p&#229; hans bil och registreringsskylt, som ett hot.</p><h4><strong>Nattsvart kvinnohat i kommentarsf&#228;lten</strong></h4><p>Mediecykeln f&#246;ljer ett bekant m&#246;nster. Seri&#246;sa medier &#228;r f&#246;rst med att g&#246;ra noggranna sammanst&#228;llningar av vad som h&#228;nt under r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen, d&#228;refter tar mer klickjagande kanaler &#246;ver. Akt&#246;rer som <strong>No Jumper</strong>, <strong>Complex</strong> och <strong>DJ Akademiks </strong>lyfter ur de mest skandal&#246;sa detaljerna, formulerar slagkraftiga men missvisande rubriker och v&#228;ntar sedan in kommentarerna. </p><p>Och en snabb titt p&#229; Twitter eller i olika kommentarsf&#228;lt p&#229; Instagram, YouTube eller diverse streams avsl&#246;jar ett bottenl&#246;st kvinnohat. Varje inl&#228;gg f&#246;ljs av dussintals, ibland hundratals, kommentarer av fr&#228;mst m&#228;n som p&#229; olika s&#228;tt f&#246;rl&#246;jligar, tonar ned eller f&#246;rs&#246;ker r&#228;ttf&#228;rdiga det Cassie p&#229;st&#229;s ha genomg&#229;tt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic" width="988" height="1324" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1324,&quot;width&quot;:988,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:89116,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pgL3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F075af623-4a53-4aaf-995d-c531846111c9_988x1324.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Kommentarer p&#229; ett inl&#228;gg av den popul&#228;ra streamaren DJ Akademiks.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det &#228;r sv&#229;rt att s&#228;ga hur representativa dessa kommentarer &#228;r f&#246;r m&#228;ns &#229;sikter i den riktiga v&#228;rlden. Men <em>om</em> de &#228;r representativa &#228;r l&#228;get akut.</p><p>En av de mest &#229;terkommande kommentarerna &#228;r s&#228;rskilt talande: m&#228;nnen som, efter att ha h&#246;rt om alla vidrigheter som framkommit i vittnesm&#229;len, skriver saker som &#8220;man, her husband really going thru it right now&#8221;. Allts&#229; i princip: &#8221;stackars hennes man&#8221;. </p><p>Det &#228;r fullkomligt deprimerade att se att en viss slags m&#228;n &#228;r s&#229; inkapabla att se kvinnor som m&#228;nniskor att de kan kan l&#228;sa om alla hemskheter en kvinna har uts&#228;tts f&#246;r och &#228;nd&#229; komma fram till att det verkliga offret &#228;r hennes man.</p><p>En annan vanlig kommentar, som tydligg&#246;r vissa m&#228;ns totala okunskap, ifr&#229;gas&#228;tter varf&#246;r Cassie vittnar mot Diddy trots att hon redan f&#246;rlikat f&#246;r 20 miljoner dollar. De missar d&#229;, medvetet eller omedvetet, att detta &#228;r ett fall mellan den federala staten och Diddy. Och om staten kallar Cassie som ett vittne &#228;r hon lagm&#228;ssigt tvungen att dyka upp.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/diddy-rattegangen-allt-om-den-explosiva?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/diddy-rattegangen-allt-om-den-explosiva?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p><div><hr></div><h4><strong>&#214;vriga vittnen</strong></h4><p>Under r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen ska vi &#228;ven h&#246;ra vittnesm&#229;l fr&#229;n flera andra kvinnor, som kommer att vittna anonymt under falska namn. En av dem, kallad &#8221;Jane&#8221;, menar att hon b&#246;rjade dejta Diddy 2020 och att hon tvingades ha sex med prostituerade utan kondom mot hennes vilja. </p><p>En annan, kallad &#8221;Mia&#8221;, jobbade som Diddys personliga assistent under flera &#229;r. Hon ska vittna om flera fall av v&#229;ldt&#228;kter.<br><br>&#196;ven andra vittnen v&#228;ntas kallas, d&#228;ribland fler tidigare anst&#228;llda, ytterligare sexarbetare samt personer ur Diddys n&#228;rmaste entourage. Enligt &#229;klagarsidan ska vittnesm&#229;len tillsammans m&#229;la upp bilden av ett m&#246;nster: ett systematiskt utnyttjande under tv&#229; decennier.</p><h1><strong>Dag 2 &amp; 3</strong></h1><p>Tisdagen och onsdagen upptogs helt av &#229;klagarsidans viktigaste vittne: Cassie Ventura sj&#228;lv. Gravid i &#229;ttonde m&#229;naden intog hon vittnesb&#229;set, och det &#228;r naturligtvis sv&#229;rt att f&#246;rest&#228;lla sig hur det m&#229;ste ha k&#228;nts. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:512987,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ghfw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e5b5b6a-3dbb-43b6-b606-1974d5158d70_1560x1040.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Cassie Ventura till h&#246;ger. R&#228;tteg&#229;ngsteckning: Jane Rosenberg/Reuters.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Ist&#228;llet f&#246;r att g&#246;ra s&#229;dant som h&#246;ggravida kanske brukar vilja g&#246;ra under den perioden &#8211; ta det lugnt, g&#229; in i sig sj&#228;lv, f&#246;rbereda sig inf&#246;r f&#246;dseln &#8211; tvingas hon minnas och m&#229;la upp den v&#228;rsta perioden i hennes liv. Under vissa tillf&#228;llen av f&#246;rh&#246;ret ska hon komma att beh&#246;va kolla p&#229; explicita bilder fr&#229;n the freak-offs f&#246;r att, inf&#246;r domaren och juryn, identifiera sig sj&#228;lv och de prostituerade.</p><p>Domstolen har inte offentliggjort hela transkriptionen av de l&#229;nga utfr&#229;gningarna, men vissa av de n&#228;rvarande journalisterna har sammanst&#228;llt delar av hennes vittnesm&#229;l. H&#228;r &#228;r n&#229;gra av de viktigaste punkterna som framkom:</p><ul><li><p>Cassie sa att Diddy kontrollerade hela hennes liv. Han kunde n&#228;r som helst dyka upp, banka p&#229; hennes d&#246;rr och vara rasande &#246;ver diverse &#246;vertr&#228;delser.</p></li><li><p>Hon sa att de i b&#246;rjan av relationen inte hade n&#229;gra smeknamn f&#246;r varandra. Han ska d&#228;rf&#246;r ha fr&#229;gat vad hon brukade kalla sin farfar. Hon svarade &#8221;Pop Pop&#8221;. Diddy svarade d&#229; att han ville att det skulle bli hennes smeknamn f&#246;r honom.</p></li><li><p>Hon s&#228;ger att han fl&#246;g in manliga prostiturerade fr&#229;n Los Angeles och Miami, vilket &#228;r en grundpelare i fallet eftersom det anses vara ett federalt brott att transportera personer &#246;ver delstatsgr&#228;nser i syfte att beg&#229; sexk&#246;p eller sexuella &#246;vergrepp. Hon sa att Diddy f&#246;rv&#228;ntade sig att hon skulle boka de prostituerade, men att han betalade f&#246;r dem.</p></li><li><p>Hon n&#228;mnde att han kr&#228;vde &#229;terkommande freak-offs och att han tjatade p&#229; henne tills han fick som han ville. De l&#228;ngsta sessionerna kunde vara i upp till fyra dygn, och hon beh&#246;vde ibland f&#229; dropp och massager f&#246;r att &#229;terh&#228;mta sig. </p></li><li><p>Hon sa att hon under the freak-offs tog droger, fr&#228;mst ketamin, f&#246;r att kunna st&#228;nga av sitt medvetande eller separera det fr&#229;n vad som h&#228;nde.</p></li><li><p>Hon understr&#246;k att hon hatade the freak-offs, att hon k&#228;nde sig f&#246;rnedrad och att den enda tiden hon fick med honom var mellan sessionerna.</p></li><li><p>The freak-offs f&#246;ljde alltid ett liknande m&#246;nster med att Diddy regisserade akterna. Han kunde exempelvis f&#246;rbjuda eskorterna fr&#229;n att komma tills han sa att det var okej. Cassie beskrev att hon och Diddy ibland, efter en avslutad session, gick in i ett separat rum och att han ville att hon skulle sm&#246;rja in hans br&#246;st med sperman fr&#229;n eskorterna.</p></li><li><p>Babyolja och glidmedel verkar ha varit i fokus. Hon vittnade om att han ibland kr&#228;vde att de skulle applicera mer olja var femte minut. <em>&#8220;You need to put on more oil&#8221;</em>, ska han ha sagt. &#8221;<em>You need to be glistening. You need to be shining.&#8221;</em></p></li><li><p>Under hennes vittnesm&#229;l visade man upp m&#229;nga bilder p&#229; skadorna som han &#229;samkat henne. Vid ett tillf&#228;lle ska han ha knockat henne s&#229; att hon slog i &#246;gonbrynet p&#229; s&#228;nggaveln. Diddy ska d&#229; ha f&#229;tt en av sina vakter att ta henne till en plastikkirurg f&#246;r att &#229;tg&#228;rda skadan. Hon har fortfarande kvar &#228;rret.</p></li><li><p>Hon sa att hon ofta anv&#228;nde mycket smink och solglas&#246;gon f&#246;r att d&#246;lja skadorna.</p></li><li><p>Hon beskrev ett tillf&#228;lle n&#228;r de hade varit ombord en b&#229;t i samband med Cannes filmfestival. Han ska d&#229; ha blivit s&#229; pass arg att han kickade av henne fr&#229;n en b&#229;t utan skor och pass. N&#228;r de fl&#246;g hem, p&#229; ett vanligt passagerarplan, hade hon f&#246;rs&#246;kt undvika honom genom att boka en annan plats, men han s&#229;g till att &#228;ndra sitt s&#228;te s&#229; att han &#228;nd&#229; hamnade bredvid henne. D&#228;r ska han ha tagit fram sin laptop och visat henne en film fr&#229;n the freak offs &#8211; som ett hot.</p></li><li><p>Hon beskrev hur hans personal &#8211; vakter, f&#246;rare, etcetera &#8211; s&#229;g mycket av v&#229;ldet hon utsattes f&#246;r. Vid minst ett tillf&#228;lle ska n&#229;gon personal &#8211; det framgick inte vem &#8211; ha stoppat henne fr&#229;n att fly. Vid ett annat tog de henne till ett hotell d&#228;r hon skulle h&#229;lla sig inl&#229;st under en vecka f&#246;r att l&#228;ka fr&#229;n sina skador.</p></li><li><p>Under en av perioderna d&#229; Cassie och Diddy hade gjort slut ska hon ha b&#246;rjat dejta rapparen Kid Cudi. Diddy blev galen n&#228;r han fick reda p&#229; det, och ska &#229;terigen ha hotat med v&#229;ld och att l&#228;cka filmerna.</p></li><li><p>I slutet av &#229;klagarsidans f&#246;rh&#246;ret beskrev hon att hon 2023, efter att ha upplevt traumatiska flashbacks, hade tankar om att ta sitt liv. Hon planerade att g&#229; ut i trafiken p&#229; motorv&#228;gen, men hennes man hade stoppat henne och hon b&#246;rjade d&#228;refter i traumaterapi.</p></li><li><p>Cassie beskrev ocks&#229; slutet p&#229; relationen. Hon hade under 2018 uppt&#228;ckt honom med en annan kvinna och ville avsluta relationen f&#246;r gott. De hade en sista middag p&#229; en restaurang i augusti 2018. Den verkar ha varit f&#246;rh&#229;llandevis trevlig. Men n&#228;r han k&#246;rde hem henne ska han ha tvingat sig in i hennes hus och v&#229;ldtagit henne p&#229; vardagsrumsgolvet.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic" width="750" height="500" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:500,&quot;width&quot;:750,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:120916,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FLpW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7ab125c-6fa8-4c32-b48a-028709dccc28_750x500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sean &#8220;Diddy&#8221; Combs till v&#228;nster, Diddys advokat Anna Estevao i mitten, och Cassie Ventura till h&#246;ger.</figcaption></figure></div><h1><strong>Dag 4</strong></h1><p>Under torsdagen den 15 maj blev det Diddys f&#246;rsvars tur att f&#229; korsf&#246;rh&#246;ra Cassie. F&#246;rsvaret fokuserade mycket p&#229; deras relation och en hel del textmeddelanden l&#228;stes upp. </p><p>Eftersom de var ihop i elva &#229;r f&#229;r man anta att det &#228;nd&#229; fanns perioder av normalitet eller till och med perioder d&#228;r de uttryckte k&#228;rlek f&#246;r varandra, och det &#228;r den sortens meddelanden f&#246;rsvaret ville ringa in. H&#228;r &#228;r n&#229;gra av de centrala delarna:</p><ul><li><p>F&#246;rsvaret l&#228;ste upp flera meddelanden som p&#229; olika s&#228;tt framst&#228;llde det som att Cassie <em>ville</em> delta i freak-offs, eller att hon l&#228;ngtat efter att ligga med honom. De l&#228;ste exempelvis upp ett sms d&#228;r hon sa: <em>&#8221;Baby I want to F.O. so bad&#8221;</em>, och att de planerade att g&#246;ra en kortare variant s&#229; att hon skulle ha tid att &#229;terh&#228;mta sig inf&#246;rt en invigning hon skulle g&#229; p&#229;. </p></li><li><p>Cassie h&#228;vdade &#229; sin sida att det fanns viktig kontext som f&#246;rsvaret utel&#228;mnade till de meddelandena. Att hon uttryckte sig s&#229; f&#246;r att f&#246;rs&#246;ka g&#246;ra Diddy glad.</p></li><li><p>F&#246;rsvaret tillbringade &#228;ven mycket tid p&#229; att kartl&#228;gga det utbredda knarkandet b&#229;da h&#246;ll p&#229; med under relationen. Samt otroheten och svartsjukan som ocks&#229; verkade vara komponenter av relationen. F&#246;rsvaret verkade genom detta, vilja sl&#229; fast att relationen var stormig och oh&#228;lsosam, men att det f&#246;r den sakens skull inte kan klassas som att Cassie var offer f&#246;r organiserad trafficking. </p></li></ul><h2><strong>Dag 5</strong></h2><p>Under fredagen den 16 maj, i vad som blev Cassies fj&#228;rde dag i rad med utfr&#229;gningar, fokuserade f&#246;rsvaret mycket p&#229; att f&#246;rs&#246;ka urholka hennes trov&#228;rdighet. H&#228;r &#228;r de viktigaste sakerna som framkom:</p><ul><li><p>F&#246;rsvaret ville reda ut hur pass drogp&#229;verkad Diddy var under hans misshandel av Cassie 2016. Hon hade tidigare sagt att han varit &#8221;blackout&#8221; p&#229;verkad &#8211; allts&#229; extremt p&#229;verkad &#8211; men hon sa nu att alla har olika definitioner av vad det inneb&#228;r. Hon vidh&#246;ll att han definitivt var berusad, av b&#229;de droger och alkohol. F&#246;rsvaret verkade vilja g&#246;ra en po&#228;ng av att Diddy led av abstinensbesv&#228;r vid tillf&#228;llet &#8211; ett led i att f&#246;rklara varf&#246;r han, enligt dem, agerade okarakt&#228;ristiskt v&#229;ldsamt den dagen.</p></li><li><p>F&#246;rsvaret ville &#228;ven fastst&#228;lla tidslinjen f&#246;r v&#229;ldt&#228;kten 2018, som hon tidigare vittnat om att Diddy utsatt henne f&#246;r. Det verkar ha r&#229;tt f&#246;rvirring kring n&#228;r den intr&#228;ffade, i september eller augusti 2018.</p></li><li><p>Genom gamla textmeddelande kunde f&#246;rsvaret fastsl&#229; att Cassie frivilligt haft sex med Diddy vid ett tillf&#228;lle <em>efter</em> den p&#229;st&#229;dda v&#229;ldt&#228;kten 2018. Detta var n&#229;got hon medgav hade h&#228;nt. Hon sa att k&#228;rleken hon &#228;nd&#229; haft f&#246;r honom inte bara f&#246;rsvann trots att de gjort slut eller allt han utsatt henne f&#246;r. Sexet ska ha skett samtidigt som hon var i en tidig dejtingfas med hennes nuvarande man, <strong>Alex Fine</strong>.</p></li><li><p>F&#246;rsvaret f&#246;rs&#246;kte &#228;ven insinuera att Cassie hade finansiella problem under 2023, ungef&#228;r samtidigt som hon anm&#228;lde Diddy och n&#229;dde en f&#246;rlikning med honom om 20 miljoner dollar. De p&#229;stod att hon &#8211; efter att hon f&#229;tt pengarna &#8211; avbrutit planerna p&#229; en turn&#233;, och att hon, hennes man och deras barn &#8211; innan hon f&#229;tt pengarna &#8211; hade flyttat in hos hennes f&#246;r&#228;ldrar i Connecticut f&#246;r att spara pengar. </p></li><li><p>Cassie kontrade med att varken den avbrutna turn&#233;n eller inflyttningen till f&#246;r&#228;ldrarna hade med pengar att g&#246;ra. Hon och hennes familj skulle helt enkelt flytta till &#246;stkusten och att de bodde hos hennes f&#246;r&#228;ldrar under en period var som en mellanlandning.</p></li><li><p>F&#246;rsvaret spelade &#228;ven upp ljud fr&#229;n ett samtal d&#228;r Cassie hotade en man till livet. Hon hade misst&#228;nkt att han stulit eller kommit &#246;ver en video fr&#229;n the freak-offs.</p></li><li><p>F&#246;rsvarets korsf&#246;rh&#246;r avslutade med att de l&#228;ste upp en textkonversation mellan Diddy of Cassie fr&#229;n 2012, d&#228;r han fr&#229;gade henne om hon ville ha en freak-off <em>&#8220;one last time&#8221;</em>. Hon ska d&#229; ha svarat nej, och att hon ville ha en freak-off f&#246;r den<em> "first time for the rest of our lives&#8221;</em>.</p></li><li><p>&#197;klagarsidan bad om att f&#229; prata med Cassie ytterligare en g&#229;ng, och de inledde med att ge ytterligare kontext till den sms-konversationen. &#197;klagarna l&#228;ste upp sms d&#228;r Cassie sa<em> &#8221;I want to see you, but I&#8217;m emotional right now. I don&#8217;t want to do one last time. I&#8217;d rather not do it at all.&#8221;</em></p></li></ul><h4><strong>Yasin Binda</strong></h4><p>&#197;klagarna kallade sedan ett till vittne: Homeland Security-agenten Yasin Binda, som deltog i r&#228;den mot Diddys hus i september 2024. Hon ber&#228;ttade att myndigheterna lagt beslag m&#228;ngder av babyolja samt &#228;ven mediciner, pengar och droger.</p><h4><strong>Dawn Richard</strong></h4><p>Innan dagen var slut kallade &#229;klagarsidan ett sista vittne: s&#229;ngerskan Dawn Richard, som mellan 2004 och 2011 ing&#229;tt i tv&#229; av Diddys grupper: <strong>Danity Kane</strong> och <strong>Diddy Dirty Money</strong>. Hon ber&#228;ttade om ett tillf&#228;lle 2009 d&#229; hon och Cassie hade befunnit sig i k&#246;ket i Diddys Los Angeles-mansion n&#228;r han pl&#246;tsligt stormade ned fr&#229;n &#246;verv&#229;ningen.</p><p><em>&#8221;He came downstairs screaming, belligerent, asking where his food was, and proceeded to hit her over the head, kicked her and beat her to the ground in front of us.&#8221;</em></p><p>Enligt Richard ska han ha varit ursinnig &#246;ver att maten inte var klar, ha tagit stekpannan som Cassie stekte &#228;gg i och sedan slagit henne med den. Richard tror inte att pannan tr&#228;ffade ordentligt, men Cassie f&#246;ll till marken i fosterst&#228;llning &#228;nd&#229;, som f&#246;r att skydda sig. Diddy ska d&#229; ha slagit och sparkat henne innan han drog upp henne p&#229; &#246;verv&#229;ningen d&#228;r misshandeln fortsatte. Richard ingrep inte av r&#228;dsla och ringde inte heller polisen.</p><p>Hon ber&#228;ttade &#228;ven att han dagen d&#228;rp&#229; bj&#246;d in henne till ett m&#246;te. D&#228;r ska han ha f&#246;rklarat f&#246;r henne att det hon bevittnat bara var resultatet av en passionerad relation och att Cassie m&#229;dde bra. Han ska sedan ha rekommenderat Richard att inte prata om h&#228;ndelsen, eftersom folk d&#229; kan f&#246;rsvinna. Hon tolkade det som ett hot.</p><p>Richard ska forts&#228;tta sitt vittnesm&#229;l p&#229; m&#229;ndag den 19 maj.</p><h1><strong>Vad handlar striden om?</strong></h1><p>Jag &#228;r l&#229;ngt ifr&#229;n en juridikexpert men baserat p&#229; korsf&#246;rh&#246;ren med Cassie verkar det som att striden kretsar kring samtycke. Under f&#246;rh&#246;ret l&#228;ste Diddys f&#246;rsvar upp flera sms-konversationer d&#228;r det framst&#228;lls som att hon var en villig deltagare, som att hon &#229;kte och tr&#228;ffade honom trots att hon visste att det var en freak-off som v&#228;ntade.</p><p>&#197;klagarsidan menar &#229; sin sida att hon gjorde det f&#246;r att &#8211; vi har ju sett videon &#8211; v&#229;ldet hon annars skulle uts&#228;ttas f&#246;r. Och f&#246;rutom fysiskt v&#229;ld understryker de att han hotade att f&#246;rst&#246;ra hennes rykte p&#229; andra s&#228;tt, genom att exempelvis l&#228;cka filmerna fr&#229;n the freak-offs som han hade spelat in. <br><br>En central fr&#229;ga &#228;r huruvida Cassies, ibland, "ja" till freak-offs verkligen var ett samtycke, eller om det snarare var ett resultat av hot, r&#228;dsla och psykiskt och fysiskt v&#229;ld. Enligt USA:s federala lag om sex-trafficking r&#228;cker det med att samtycket givits under hot, tv&#229;ng, manipulation eller r&#228;dsla f&#246;r repressalier f&#246;r att det ska r&#228;knas som icke-samtycke.<br><br>F&#246;rsvaret har en balansg&#229;ng att g&#229;. De f&#229;r &#229; ena sidan inte verka sakna empati f&#246;r Cassie eller f&#246;r uppenbart verka &#8221;victim blame&#8221;. &#197; andra sidan anv&#228;nder de Cassies egna ord, i form av gamla sms, i ett f&#246;rs&#246;k att m&#229;la upp det som att de, ja, hade en toxisk, icke-traditionell och ibland v&#229;ldsam relation, men att det f&#246;r den sakens skull inte r&#246;r sig om trafficking eller organiserad brottslighet.</p><p>Som tidigare n&#228;mnt kommer r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen att p&#229;g&#229; under tv&#229; m&#229;nader och vi kan r&#228;kna med en hel del v&#228;ndningar. Jag kommer inte att t&#228;cka den veckovis, utan t&#228;nker att det h&#228;r inl&#228;gget fungerar som en sammanfattning &#246;ver vad allt handlar om och hur den f&#246;rsta veckan gick. Jag kommer dock s&#228;kert att g&#246;ra fler inl&#228;gg om r&#228;tteg&#229;ngen fram&#246;ver.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic" width="768" height="1024" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1024,&quot;width&quot;:768,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:180797,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!NJ1W!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02a16b95-9955-4fbe-916f-f398e74e462d_768x1024.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Alex Fine, Cassie Ventura och deras tv&#229; barn. </figcaption></figure></div><h1>Uttalande fr&#229;n Cassie och hennes man</h1><p>Efter fyra dagar tog f&#246;rh&#246;ren med Cassie &#228;ntligen slut p&#229; fredagskv&#228;llen svensk tid. Strax efter att hon blev klar l&#228;ste hennes jurist upp ett par uttalanden fr&#229;n henne och hennes man, Alex Fine. De v&#228;ntar n&#228;r som helst sitt tredje barn. Fine valde att i sitt uttalande adressera alla, fr&#228;mst m&#228;n, som efter att f&#229; h&#246;rt hemskheterna Cassie utsatts f&#246;r har m&#229;lat upp honom som ett offer eller en r&#228;ddare-i-n&#246;den.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic" width="1456" height="840" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:840,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:142614,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K8dL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F90a7fca6-d9fc-4485-a6a1-fe6b10d8e9ed_1488x858.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Cassies uttalande, via CNN.</figcaption></figure></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic" width="1456" height="996" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:996,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:231685,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163770881?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OpYo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fecca5be9-fcca-4281-829c-eb8ca0397517_1494x1022.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Alex Fines uttalande, via CNN.</figcaption></figure></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Myten om vita sydafrikanska flyktingar]]></title><description><![CDATA[En cocktail av desinformation och vitt privilegium]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/myten-om-vita-sydafrikanska-flyktingar</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/myten-om-vita-sydafrikanska-flyktingar</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 14 May 2025 15:36:27 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:250172,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163558383?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tipv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd84e2537-ba6d-4a91-9b8b-ba06c7938ae8_1500x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Sydafrikaner tas emot av USA:s bitr&#228;dande utrikesminister Christopher Landau. Foto: Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det var i m&#229;ndags de anl&#228;nde: den f&#246;rsta gruppen vita sydafrikaner som f&#229;tt flyktingstatus i USA. Anledningen? Trumpadministrationen h&#228;vdar att de i Sydafrika uts&#228;tts f&#246;r diskriminering och till och med folkmord.</p><div id="youtube2-Ns1h89Rngg8" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;Ns1h89Rngg8&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/Ns1h89Rngg8?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><p>Det var ett mottagande ut&#246;ver det vanliga n&#228;r de landade p&#229; Dulles International Airport i Virginia den 12 maj. Ett femtiotal sydafrikaner &#8211; m&#228;n, kvinnor och barn &#8211; m&#246;ttes av ett pressuppb&#229;d och USA:s bitr&#228;dande utrikesminister Christopher Landau, som sa att det var en &#228;ra att f&#229; v&#228;lkomna dem.</p><p>Det beh&#246;ver kanske understrykas: ingenting tyder p&#229; att vita sydafrikaner uts&#228;tts f&#246;r ett folkmord. Gruppen som &#8221;flyktingarna&#8221; tillh&#246;r, formellt kallad f&#246;r &#8221;afrikander" eller &#8221;afrikaaners&#8221;, &#228;r &#228;ttlingar till de framf&#246;rallt nederl&#228;ndska kolonisat&#246;rerna som anl&#228;nde fr&#229;n 1600-talet och fram&#229;t, och tillh&#246;r tv&#228;rtom kontinentens mest priviligierade.</p><p>Enligt diverse studier utg&#246;r vita sydafrikaner 7-8 procent av befolkningen men &#228;ger  <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201802/landauditreport13feb2018.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com">&#246;ver 70 procent av jordbruksmarken</a>. De har i genomsnitt <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09538259.2024.2318962">20 g&#229;nger h&#246;gre f&#246;rm&#246;genhet</a> &#228;n svarta sydafrikaner, och innehar de h&#246;gsta positionerna inom n&#228;ringslivet.</p><p>De mer extrema r&#246;sterna h&#228;vdar ofta att denna ofantliga ekonomiska oj&#228;mlikhet &#228;r resultatet av vita sydafrikaners h&#229;rda arbete. Men det &#228;r, naturligtvis, fr&#228;mst en effekt av hundratals &#229;r av olika former av diskriminerande och f&#246;rtryckande praktiker.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share Svart historia&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/?utm_source=substack&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_content=share&amp;action=share"><span>Share Svart historia</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Under sekler f&#246;rv&#228;grades svarta r&#246;str&#228;tt och fri r&#246;relse, f&#246;rvisades till de mest og&#228;stv&#228;nliga landomr&#229;dena och f&#246;rbj&#246;ds fr&#229;n att &#228;ga. De fick begr&#228;nsade utbildningsm&#246;jligheter och h&#246;lls nere av en brutal och omfattande s&#228;kerhetsapparat. Bland mycket annat.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic" width="1456" height="874" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:874,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:157705,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163558383?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OqbT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F129c3530-b214-4454-bf5d-c0ae7ae5f332_1600x960.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ett svart hembitr&#228;de och en vit flicka p&#229; en rassegregerad b&#228;nk i Sydafrika 1956. Foto: Peter Magubane.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Tyrannin tog m&#229;nga skepnader genom &#229;ren men utvecklades till apartheidsystemet som r&#229;dde &#228;nda in p&#229; 1990-talet. Och trots att systemet avskaffades 1994 har den ekonomiska oj&#228;mlikheten best&#229;tt.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:291100,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163558383?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VsCf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ff7b66e-a619-4a99-bbba-8f457f44dfab_1500x1000.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">En demonstration i Soweto sommaren 1976. Foto: Jan Hamman/Foto24/Gallo Images/Getty Images. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Det &#228;r mot denna bakgrund som Sydafrika antog en <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cvg9w4n6gp5o">exproprieringslag</a> i januari 2025. Lagen g&#246;r det m&#246;jligt f&#246;r staten att ta &#246;ver land utan kompensation, men enbart i fall d&#228;r landet inte anv&#228;nds och det inte finns n&#229;gra planer p&#229; att bebygga det. </p><p>L&#229;nga domstolsprocesser, transparenta procedurer och ett gediget regelverk ska s&#228;kerst&#228;lla att eventuella &#246;vertaganden inte sker p&#229; or&#228;ttvisa grunder. Lagen inneh&#229;ller heller ingen rasm&#228;ssig komponent och vita ska inte drabbas i egenskap av att de &#228;r vita. Hittills har inte ett enda landomr&#229;de tagits &#246;ver.</p><p>Det parodiska spektaklet med de sydafrikanska &#8221;flyktingarna&#8221; sker kort efter att Trumpadministrationen strypt allt annat flyktingmottagande. Personer fr&#229;n krigsdrabbade platser som Sudan, Afghanistan och Demokratiska republiken Kongo nekas numera intr&#228;de. Och tusentals individer som redan hade f&#229;tt sin ans&#246;kan godk&#228;nd, ofta efter &#229;rsl&#229;nga processer, fick pl&#246;tsligt besluten upprivna och har nu blivit strandade i ett administrativt vakuum.</p><p>Det handlar uppenbarligen om ras. Det &#228;r ingen slump att det &#228;r vita sydafrikaner som f&#229;r denna gr&#228;ddfil. Historiskt har USA snarare gjort det s&#228;rskilt sv&#229;rt f&#246;r svarta afrikaner att f&#229; sin flyktingstatus beviljad. Exempelvis genom l&#228;ngre handl&#228;ggningstider och <a href="https://refugees.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Policy-and-Advocacy-Report-1.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com">betydligt h&#246;gre grad av avslag</a>.</p><p>Som brukligt under dessa tider av propaganda, d&#229;lig k&#228;llkritik och AI-genererat inneh&#229;ll har id&#233;n om ett folkmord p&#229; vita sydafrikaner f&#229;tt stort genomslag p&#229; sociala medier. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic" width="1390" height="1500" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;width&quot;:1390,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:253048,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163558383?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2WOm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6d9fa2d4-4608-4d78-87ce-8669a65c9bc1_1390x1500.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Exempel p&#229; Facebook-inl&#228;gg som sprider falska uppgifter kring antalet m&#246;rdade vita b&#246;nder.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Flertalet poster sprider falska p&#229;st&#229;enden om att 60 vita b&#246;nder m&#246;rdas om dagen och att 4000 vita b&#246;nder d&#246;dats sedan 2018. Inte minst p&#229; Twitter, d&#228;r den sydafrikanske &#228;garen och miljard&#228;ren Elon Musk sj&#228;lv har g&#229;tt i spetsen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic" width="1172" height="850" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:850,&quot;width&quot;:1172,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:71110,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/163558383?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Sg0P!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1daeb471-4c16-43f3-845c-9a72328ee743_1172x850.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Tweet av Elon Musk i februari 2025.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det finns inget st&#246;d f&#246;r dessa p&#229;st&#229;enden i brottsstatistiken och de har upprepade g&#229;nger <a href="https://factcheck.afp.com/doc.afp.com.36ZD7HY?tpcc=africa_brief&amp;utm_source=Sailthru&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=Africa%20Brief%2005142025&amp;utm_term=africa_brief">motbevisats</a> av flera oberoende faktagranskare. Sydafrika &#228;r ett av v&#228;rldens mest v&#229;ldsdrabbade l&#228;nder och &#228;ven om det f&#246;rekommer att &#228;ven vita b&#246;nder d&#246;das, bleknar antalet, &#228;ven procentuellt, i j&#228;mf&#246;relse med hur m&#229;nga svarta b&#246;nder som m&#246;rdas.</p><p>Denna l&#246;gn, som vill h&#228;vda att vita sydafrikaner f&#246;rf&#246;ljs, &#228;r inte ny i Sydafrika. Den &#228;r del av en st&#246;rre politisk mytbildning vars syfte p&#229; olika s&#228;tt &#228;r att r&#228;ttf&#228;rdiga vitas ekonomiska s&#228;rst&#228;llning och urs&#228;kta de historiska brott som beg&#229;tts. Andra exempel inkluderar The Empty Land Myth (att Sydafrika var obefolkat innan europeiska kolonisat&#246;rer kom dit) och att apartheidsystemet var mer godhj&#228;rtat &#228;n vad folk anat.</p><p>Skillnaden &#228;r att de som sprider denna typ av myter nu inkluderar v&#228;rldens rikaste man. Och att han har inflytande &#246;ver ledaren f&#246;r v&#228;rldens m&#228;ktigaste land.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><h3><strong>L&#228;s mer:</strong></h3><p><strong>Rapporter:</strong></p><p>Land Audit Report &#8211; Phase II: Private Land Ownership by Race, Gender and Nationality (november 2017, version 2)</p><p>Policy &amp; Advocacy Report (vol. 4, nr. 15) av U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (maj, 2021)</p><p><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar:</strong></p><p>"The Racial Wealth Gap in South Africa and the United States" av Grieve Chelwa, Mashekwa Maboshe &amp; Darrick Hamilton i <em>Review of Political Economy </em>(vol. 36, nr. 2, 2024)</p><p><strong>Artiklar:</strong></p><p>"African asylum seekers afraid ahead of US election" av Kaine Pieri f&#246;r <em>BBC News</em> (30 oktober, 2024)</p><p>"False data distort complex picture of South African farm murders" av <em>AFP Fact Check</em> (10 mars, 2025)</p><p>"Trump administration cancels travel for refugees already cleared to come to America" av Farnoush Amiri, Rebecca Santana &amp; Gisela Salomon f&#246;r Associated Press (22 januari, 2025)</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Vad är afrocentrism?]]></title><description><![CDATA[Och varf&#246;r &#228;r det s&#229; kontroversiellt?]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vad-ar-afrocentrism</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vad-ar-afrocentrism</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 28 Apr 2025 10:54:50 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:592914,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/162317485?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tSVW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf7da85a-e25f-4ade-9c16-a79fcace3394_1536x1024.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>I februari skrev jag om <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld">Mansa Musa och det v&#228;ldiga Maliriket</a>. I den texten ber&#228;ttade jag &#228;ven om mystiken kring Musas v&#228;g till tronen. En snabb p&#229;minnelse: enligt den arabiske historikern <strong>Al-Umari</strong>, som levde p&#229; 1300-talet och skrev om Mansa Musas fl&#229;diga pilgrimsf&#228;rd till <strong>Mekka</strong>, ska Musa ha f&#246;reg&#229;tts av en regent som gav sig ut p&#229; haven f&#246;r att korsa Atlanten. Men han &#229;terv&#228;nde aldrig, vilket beredde v&#228;gen f&#246;r Musa att sj&#228;lv ta &#246;ver tronen.</p><p>I texten gick jag &#228;ven igenom flera av teorierna kring resan. Och varf&#246;r man inte omedelbart kan avf&#228;rda att expeditionen kan ha &#228;gt rum, men varf&#246;r det mesta &#228;nd&#229; pekar p&#229; att resan inte skedde, &#229;tminstone inte p&#229; s&#228;ttet som Al-Umari p&#229;stod.</p><p>Bristen p&#229; bevis kring resan har inte hindrat ber&#228;ttelsen fr&#229;n att f&#229; f&#228;ste i vissa kretsar. &#197;r 1976 sl&#228;ppte den kontroversielle och Guyanaf&#246;dde <strong>Ivan Van Sertima </strong>boken <em>They Came Before Columbus</em>. Han studerade vid Rutgersuniversitetet i New Jersey, en skola d&#228;r han senare skulle bli professor i afrikanistik.</p>
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          <a href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/vad-ar-afrocentrism">
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Israel fortsätter att mörka morden på civila]]></title><description><![CDATA[Hanteringen av de 15 m&#246;rdade palestinska hj&#228;lparbetarna f&#246;ljer ett bekant m&#246;nster.]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/israel-fortsatter-att-morka-morden</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/israel-fortsatter-att-morka-morden</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 13 Apr 2025 10:41:29 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic" width="780" height="439" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:439,&quot;width&quot;:780,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:100638,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/161221111?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!P9ab!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7526287b-ad36-4f26-bc80-7ee521e4c749_780x439.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Palestinier s&#246;rjer de m&#246;rdade hj&#228;lparbetarna. Foto av: Hatem Khaled/Reuters.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I b&#246;rjan p&#229; april gr&#228;vdes 15 palestinska hj&#228;lparbetare upp ur en massgrav i s&#246;dra Rafah. De hade begravts i sina uniformer. I n&#228;rheten hittades deras ambulanser, som bisarrt nog hade krossats och sedan ocks&#229; g&#246;mts under sanden.</p><p>Den makabra uppt&#228;ckten blev kulmen p&#229; letandet efter den hj&#228;lppersonal som f&#246;rsvunnit en vecka tidigare, i samband med en utryckning i omr&#229;det.</p><p>IDF, Israels milit&#228;r, f&#246;rnekade inblandning medan letandet fortfarande p&#229;gick. Men senare, n&#228;r offren hittades, justerade IDF sin version av h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rloppet. Man sa nu att man visst k&#228;nde till incidenten, men att den var ett resultat av att hj&#228;lparbetarna hade upptr&#228;tt misst&#228;nksamt. Man p&#229;stod att r&#228;ddningsfordonen hade n&#228;rmat sig israeliska trupper och dessutom k&#246;rt utan sirenerna p&#229;. Soldaterna hade, ungef&#228;r av r&#228;dsla f&#246;r sina egna liv, inte sett n&#229;got annat val &#228;n att &#246;ppna eld.</p><p>Men p&#229; en av de uppgr&#228;vda kropparna hittades en mobil. Telefonen inneh&#246;ll en film som visade upp en helt annan bild. Som visade upp ett <em>krigsbrott</em>. </p><p>I <a href="https://www.youtube.com/shorts/5OU-XwXilY0">videosekvensen</a>, publicerad av New York Times, ser man hur de tydligt uppm&#228;rkta ambulanserna k&#246;r i led. Det &#228;r strax innan gryning och framlyktorna och sirenerna &#228;r det enda som lyser upp den annars m&#246;rka v&#228;gen. Utan f&#246;rvarning b&#246;rjar de rappa skotten ljuda. Mannen som filmar f&#246;rs&#246;ker ta skydd, men f&#246;rg&#228;ves. Strax innan han skjuts ihj&#228;l f&#229;ngar telefonen hans sista ord:</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;F&#246;rl&#229;t mig mamma. Jag ville bara hj&#228;lpa m&#228;nniskor.&#8221;</em></p></blockquote><p>Filmsekvensen tvingade milit&#228;ren att &#228;ndra sin version f&#246;r andra g&#229;ngen. Nu medgav man att misstag hade beg&#229;tts, att hj&#228;lparbetarna inte alls upptr&#228;tt konstigt och att ambulanserna visst hade anv&#228;nt sina sirener. Man lovade att unders&#246;ka h&#228;ndelsen. Men som s&#229; ofta verkar kraven p&#229; en oberoende granskning falla f&#246;r d&#246;va &#246;ron.</p><p>&#8221;Enligt det Hamaskontrollerade h&#228;lsodepartementet.&#8221;<em> </em>Alla som har f&#246;ljt f&#246;r&#246;delsen i Gaza har st&#246;tt p&#229; den meningen. Det g&#229;r att g&#246;ra sig lustig &#246;ver hur n&#228;stan panikartat journalister inkluderar frasen s&#229; fort det hiskeligt h&#246;ga d&#246;dstalet p&#229; civila palestinier kommer p&#229; tal. Men jag har egentligen inget problem med uttrycket i sig.</p><p>I en situation d&#228;r det folkmordsanklagade israeliska styret inte sl&#228;pper in oberoende media och inga sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndiga granskningar kan g&#246;ras, &#228;r det naturligtvis av vikt f&#246;r allm&#228;nheten att f&#229; veta vilken part som redog&#246;r f&#246;r en viss uppgift.</p><p>Nej, det som &#228;r det verkliga problemet &#228;r bristen p&#229; konsekvens. IDF:s uppgifter tas av m&#229;nga medier som sanning. Som n&#229;got trov&#228;rdigt och objektivt, n&#229;got som inte beh&#246;vs ses i ljuset av en historisk kontext. Men massakern p&#229; hj&#228;lparbetarna f&#246;ljer ett bekant m&#246;nster av vilseledande. D&#228;r IDF:s d&#246;dande av civila inledande viftas bort med ett f&#246;rnekande. Som sedan f&#246;ljs av ett misst&#228;nkligg&#246;rande av offren. Som f&#246;rst efter press leder till ett medgivande om att det var en olycka och ett l&#246;fte om en utredning. Ofta uteblir dock n&#229;gra reella konsekvenser f&#246;r de inblandade.</p><p>Ett av de mer k&#228;nda fallen intr&#228;ffade n&#228;r den ber&#246;mda journalisten Shireen Abu Akleh sk&#246;ts ihj&#228;l p&#229; V&#228;stbanken 2022. IDF skyllde f&#246;rst p&#229; palestinska militanta. F&#246;rst efter att oberoende granskningar gjorts medgav Israel motvilligt att en av landets soldater antagligen hade skjutit henne. &#196;n idag har ingen h&#229;llits ansvarig.</p><p>Men listan p&#229; liknande fall kan g&#246;ras l&#229;ng, och med tanke p&#229; de m&#229;nga hundratals palestinska journalister och hj&#228;lparbetare som IDF har m&#246;rdat bara sedan 2023, finns det allt f&#228;rre r&#246;ster kvar som kan utmana Israels version av olika omtvistade h&#228;ndelsef&#246;rlopp.</p><p>Om journalistiken nu ska tj&#228;na allm&#228;nheten och vara konsekvent, &#228;r det h&#246;g tid att &#228;ven IDF:s uppgifter f&#246;rses med en brasklapp. Vad s&#228;gs om &#8221;enligt IDF, som upprepade g&#229;nger m&#246;rklagt morden p&#229; civila&#8221;. </p><div><hr></div><p><em>Denna text publicerades ursprungligen som en radiokr&#246;nika i Godmorgon v&#228;rlden i P1. Ni hittar den <a href="https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/amat-levin-aven-uppgifter-fran-idf-fortjanar-sin-brasklapp">h&#228;r</a>. Jag publicerar den h&#228;r ocks&#229; f&#246;r de som av olika anledningar f&#246;redrar att l&#228;sa. </em></p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Mali, Mansa Musa & floden av guld]]></title><description><![CDATA[Sanningar och missuppfattningar om ett legendariskt v&#228;stafrikanskt imperium]]></description><link>https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Amat Levin]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 25 Feb 2025 14:06:29 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:264467,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!snz8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F94b7d239-c875-40d4-9b76-5f8ddc1f7d64_1456x819.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Maliriket, cirka 1337. Karta av Simeon Netchev.</figcaption></figure></div><p><strong>Det var en plats d&#228;r vissa trodde att v&#228;rdefulla mineraler frodades i marken och plockades som v&#228;xter. Ett gigantiskt imperium som fungerade som ett centrum f&#246;r handel och religion, och som f&#246;rs&#229;g Europa, Nordafrika och Mellan&#246;stern med det s&#229; eftertraktade guldet. </strong></p><p><strong>Men det var ocks&#229; en plats som kan ha inspirerat europ&#233;erna att ge sig ut l&#228;ngre p&#229; haven &#228;n n&#229;gonsin tidigare, med konsekvenser som ingen kan ha anat. Det h&#228;r &#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen om Mansa Musa och Maliriket.</strong></p><div><hr></div><p>Det m&#229;ste ha sett ut som en h&#228;gring. &#197;ret var 1324 och bland sanddynorna snirklade ett t&#229;g av h&#228;star, kameler och m&#228;nniskor. &#214;ver dem vajade stora r&#246;da flaggor med gula symboler p&#229;.</p><p>Upp till 60 000 man ingick i karavanen, allt fr&#229;n soldater till tj&#228;nstem&#228;n och betj&#228;nter. 500 av dem var f&#246;rslavade och bar p&#229; varsin stav av rent guld, som v&#228;gde n&#228;stan tv&#229; kilo vardera. De m&#229;nga kamelerna bar upp &#246;ver 100 kilo<em> </em>tunga laster med guldstoft.</p><p>Mitt bland soldaterna red en man i vackra kl&#228;der. D&#229;tida skrifter beskriver honom som ung och stilig, med brun hy och ett &#8221;angen&#228;mt ansikte&#8221;. Hans namn var <strong>Mansa Musa</strong>, ledaren f&#246;r <strong>Maliriket</strong>, det dittills st&#246;rsta imperiet som Afrika sk&#229;dat.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic" width="1280" height="622" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:622,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:236443,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WCo_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c4d6272-b0e9-4e30-b7e1-b37995e6fbb7_1280x622.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration f&#246;res&#228;llande Mansa Musas pilgrimsf&#228;rd. Av Niklas Asker.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Expeditionen var egentligen en muslimsk pilgrimsf&#228;rd och slutdestinationen var <strong>Mekka</strong>. Genom att g&#246;ra f&#228;rden p&#229; detta fl&#229;diga och p&#229;kostade s&#228;tt, var Mansa Musa p&#229; v&#228;g att utannonsera Maliriket som en ny och respektingivande akt&#246;r p&#229; den internationella arenan.</p><p>Idag vet vi att resan markerade ett av de mest avg&#246;rande tillf&#228;llena i V&#228;stafrikas historia. Rikedomarna som visades upp h&#228;nf&#246;rde omv&#228;rlden och gav Maliriket status som ett mytomspunnet land d&#228;r en flod av guld rann.</p><p>Men de gav ocks&#229; upphov till nyfikna funderingar och sluga planer. F&#246;r med guldet som Mansa Musa str&#246;dde omkring sig blev f&#246;ljdfr&#229;gorna naturliga: Vilka andra rikedomar doldes i Afrika, p&#229; andra sidan om den v&#228;ldiga Sahara&#246;knen? Och hur kunde man l&#228;ttast komma &#229;t dem?</p><div><hr></div><p>Ungef&#228;r s&#229; h&#228;r brukar Mansa Musas pilgrimsf&#228;rd beskrivas. Men i sj&#228;lva verket finns m&#229;nga versioner av ber&#228;ttelsen. Historiska h&#228;ndelser, s&#228;rskilt s&#229;dana som intr&#228;ffade f&#246;r s&#229; h&#228;r l&#228;ngesen, &#228;r s&#228;llan s&#229; okomplicerade som de kanske inledningsvis framst&#229;r.</p><p>Innan jag forts&#228;tter p&#229; ber&#228;ttelsen om Mansa Musa, vad hans motiv var f&#246;r pilgrimsf&#228;rden och vilka konsekvenser den fick, m&#229;ste vi backa bandet. Inte till den allra f&#246;rsta b&#246;rjan, men tillr&#228;ckligt l&#229;ngt tillbaka f&#246;r att visa p&#229; vilket s&#228;tt Mali var del av ett st&#246;rre m&#246;nster. Ett m&#246;nster d&#228;r v&#228;stafrikanska riken reste sig, spridde ut sig &#246;ver stora omr&#229;den, och sedan kollapsade.</p><div><hr></div><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Svart historia is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support the work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div><hr></div><h4><strong>Det historiska Ghana</strong></h4><p>L&#228;ngs str&#228;nderna av mellersta Nigerfloden, partiet d&#228;r den b&#246;jer sig i en enorm b&#229;ge och flyter genom nuvarande Mali och Niger, har m&#228;nniskor slagit sig ner och bildat samh&#228;llen i tusentals &#229;r. Ett av de &#228;ldsta, Mema, tros ha befolkats s&#229; tidigt som p&#229; 3800-talet f.Kr. Arkeologiska utgr&#228;vningar tyder p&#229; att det under det sista millenniet f.Kr. f&#246;ljdes av andra utm&#228;rkande orter, som <strong>Dia</strong> och <strong>Djenn&#233;-Djeno</strong>. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic" width="1200" height="960" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:960,&quot;width&quot;:1200,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:115574,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s3HF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0dfdd496-4520-4b9f-a7ba-eee989073c22_1200x960.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Terrakottaskulptur utgr&#228;vd i ruinerna av Djenn&#233;-Djeno (ungef&#228;r "gamla Djenn&#233;"), en av de m&#229;nga samh&#228;llen som blomstrade runt den mellersta Nigerfloden. Det var befolkat flera &#229;rhundraden f.Kr. men hade sin storhetstid p&#229; 800-talet e.Kr. Med tiden &#246;vergavs staden, och befolkningen flyttade till Djenn&#233;, en stad i Mali som finns kvar &#228;n idag.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det sistn&#228;mnda samh&#228;llet existerade l&#228;nge nog f&#246;r att bli en tidig del av den viktiga transsahariska handeln mellan Nord- och V&#228;stafrika, och i dess ruiner har glaskulor fr&#229;n <strong>Sydostasien</strong> gr&#228;vts fram, tecken p&#229; hur l&#229;ngt handelsn&#228;tverken str&#228;ckte sig.</p><p>En begr&#228;nsad och oregelbunden handel mellan Nord- och V&#228;stafrika hade p&#229;g&#229;tt l&#229;ngt tidigare, men mellan &#229;r 100 f.kr. och 100 e.kr., introducerades kamelen i Nordafrika fr&#229;n den arabiska halv&#246;n, f&#246;rst i Egypten och sedan l&#229;ngsamt &#246;ver resten av Nordafrika.</p><p>De djuren kan b&#228;ra betydligt tyngre laster &#228;n h&#228;star och &#229;snor, och ist&#228;llet f&#246;r hovar har de stora och runda f&#246;tter med tv&#229; t&#229;r, som f&#246;rhindrar dem fr&#229;n att sjunka ned i sanden och g&#246;r att de enklare kan r&#246;ra sig genom ett mjukt eller f&#246;r&#228;nderligt underlag. Dessutom g&#246;r pucklarna p&#229; ryggen, d&#228;r fett lagras, att djuren kan klara sig utan vatten i upp till en vecka. Kamelerna var perfekta f&#246;r Saharas og&#228;stv&#228;nliga milj&#246; och gjorde det m&#246;jligt med fler och mer omfattande handelsexpeditioner.</p><p>De som ledde expeditionerna var ofta nomader, som tillh&#246;rde ett folk som i v&#228;st traditionellt har kallats f&#246;r berber och som &#228;r en nordafrikansk ursprungsbefolkning. Berber &#228;r idag en kontroversiell term som kritiker menar &#228;r neds&#228;ttande. Sj&#228;lva kallar de sig f&#246;r amazigh i singular och imazighen i plural, vilket kan &#246;vers&#228;ttas till ungef&#228;r &#8221;fria m&#228;n&#8221;, och det &#228;r &#228;ven s&#229; jag kommer att referera till dem.</p><p>&#196;ven efter att arabiska muslimer er&#246;vrat hela Nordafrika p&#229; 600- och 700-talet fortsatte nomaderna att vara avg&#246;rande som guider. Kamelkaravanerna kunde best&#229; av s&#229; m&#229;nga som 2000 djur och trotsade hettan, sandstormarna, banditerna och de f&#246;rr&#228;diskt skiftande sanddynerna.</p><p>De r&#246;rde sig via flera olika rutter fr&#229;n oas till oas d&#228;r de s&#246;kte skydd i skuggan och fyllde p&#229; sina vattenreservoarer. Kontroll &#246;ver oaserna &#8211; b&#229;de politiskt och milit&#228;rt &#8211; var av st&#246;rsta vikt eftersom de ofta gav kontroll &#246;ver hela handelsrutten. Och i takt med att handeln v&#228;xte blev rutterna extremt lukrativa.</p><p>Den utmattande och farliga f&#228;rden genom &#246;knen tog ungef&#228;r tv&#229;-tre m&#229;nader. Efter det n&#229;dde expeditionerna fram till slutdestinationen, det s&#229; kallade Sahel. Ordet kommer ifr&#229;n arabiskans &#8221;sahil&#8221; vilket betyder ungef&#228;r &#8221;kust&#8221; och refererar till b&#228;ltet som sp&#228;nner fr&#229;n Senegal i v&#228;st till Sudan i &#246;st och som markerar Saharas &#246;verg&#229;ng till savann och gr&#228;ssl&#228;tter.</p><p>Ordet avsl&#246;jar hur man s&#229;g p&#229; &#246;knen som ett slags hav, d&#228;r kamelerna fungerade som fartyg och oaserna som hamnar. H&#228;r, p&#229; s&#246;dra sidan om &#246;knen, fanns flera riken och samh&#228;llen att handla med, som <strong>Gao</strong> i nuvarande Mali och <strong>Kanem</strong> i dagens <strong>Tchad</strong>.</p><p>Araberna kallade den h&#228;r regionen f&#246;r <em>bilal al Sudan</em>, ungef&#228;r<em> de svartas land</em>. Salt var en av de viktigaste varorna som muslimerna fr&#229;n norr hade att erbjuda &#8211; saltet var sv&#229;rt att f&#229; tag p&#229; i det subsahariska Afrika och kunde anv&#228;ndas f&#246;r att konservera mat, en ov&#228;rderlig egenskap. Bland det som muslimerna ville byta till sig stod elfenben och mest av allt guld h&#246;gst upp p&#229; listan. Men &#228;ven slavhandel f&#246;rekom, n&#229;t som &#246;kade i popularitet med tiden och som jag kommer &#229;terkomma till i en framtida text.</p><p>Ett av de k&#228;ndaste rikena som araberna fr&#229;n norr handlade med var Ghana. I ett geografiskt verk fr&#229;n &#229;r 833 vittnade den persiske polyhistorn al-Khwa&#772;rizmi&#772; om landet. Det str&#228;ckte sig fr&#229;n de syd&#246;stra delarna av nuvarande Mauretanien till v&#228;stra Mali. Det h&#228;r historiska kungad&#246;met ska allts&#229; inte f&#246;rv&#228;xlas med den nuvarande nationen Ghana.</p><p>Enligt muntlig tradition grundades det historiska Ghana av soninkefolket redan p&#229; 300-talet e.Kr. Soninke &#228;r en folkgrupp som tillsammans med andra grupper som mandinka, bambara och vai utg&#246;r en stor kulturell och spr&#229;klig grupp som tillsammans brukar ben&#228;mnas som mandefolk och som hittas i stora delar av V&#228;stafrika.</p><p>P&#229; tidiga medeltiden blev Ghana, via kontrollen &#246;ver guldhandeln, regionens ledande makt.</p><p>L&#228;get i Sahelb&#228;ltet gjorde riket till en naturligt knytpunkt i relationen mellan nord och syd, och Al-Hamdani, en medeltida arabisk f&#246;rfattare, h&#228;vdade att Ghana hade v&#228;rldens mest v&#228;rdefulla guldgruvor.</p><p>Efter att ha k&#246;pt stora block med salt satte Ghana det i system att s&#228;lja vidare det man sj&#228;lv inte beh&#246;vde. Blocken passerade fr&#229;n kameler till &#229;snor och m&#228;nniskor, som bar varorna &#228;nnu l&#228;ngre s&#246;derut, mot V&#228;stafrikas skogar d&#228;r saltets v&#228;rde, p&#229; grund av hur ovanligt det var d&#228;r, m&#229;ngdubblades.</p><p>Det var fr&#229;n dessa h&#228;r trakter Ghana importerade guldet som landet sedan skeppade norrut. Rykten om m&#228;ngden guld som fl&#246;dade genom riket spreds &#246;ver stora omr&#229;den och p&#229; 900-talet skrev den persiske historikern Ibn al-Faqih om hur han f&#246;rest&#228;llde sig att guldproduktionen gick till.</p><blockquote><p><em>&#8221;I Ghana v&#228;xer guld i jorden som mor&#246;tter g&#246;r, och plockas vid soluppg&#229;ngen&#8221;.</em></p></blockquote><p>P&#229; 1000-talet beskrevs Ghanas huvudort &#8211; potentiellt ruinerna <strong>Koumbi Saleh</strong> i dagens <strong>Mauretanien</strong> &#8211; som en stad delad i tv&#229;.</p><p>I den ena bodde muslimerna i t&#228;ta kvarter, m&#229;nga av dem handelsm&#228;n som kommit norrifr&#229;n, andra svarta afrikaner som konverterat. H&#228;r fanns marknader, imamer, b&#246;neutropare och tolv mosk&#233;er. Runt stan fanns brunnar som f&#246;rs&#229;g befolkningen med vatten.</p><p>I den andra delen av stan bodde de som f&#246;ljde Ghanas icke-muslimska kung. H&#228;r levde befolkningen i hus av sten och tr&#228; medan kungen och hans hov levde i kupolformade byggnader innanf&#246;r en stor stenmur. Vissa ur eliten hade guldsmycken infl&#228;tade i h&#229;ret. H&#228;r bodde ocks&#229; ledarna f&#246;r de lokala religionerna och i stan fanns &#228;ven en helig lund som var st&#228;ngd f&#246;r bes&#246;kare.</p><p>Ungef&#228;r en mil skilde de tv&#229; orterna, och &#228;ven om gles bebyggelse p&#229; s&#228;tt och vis kopplade samman dem, gjorde separationen att grupperna kunde leva i harmoni sida vid sida utan att riskera att kr&#228;nka varandra med sina respektive riter. Det h&#228;nde dock att somliga ur Ghanas lokalbefolkning konverterade till islam, men i s&#229;dana fall var det vanligt att de &#228;nd&#229; beh&#246;ll delar av sin traditionella religion. Ghanas kung hade &#228;ven flera muslimer i sitt hov, fr&#229;n &#246;vers&#228;ttare till r&#229;dgivare och kass&#246;rer, n&#229;got som vittnar om islams &#246;kande inflytande i riket.</p><p>Namnet Ghana tros egentligen ha varit titeln p&#229; landets h&#228;rskare och sj&#228;lva s&#228;gs befolkningen ha kallat sitt land <strong>Wagadu</strong>. Det var det h&#228;r kungad&#246;met som den moderna nationen <strong>Ghana</strong> inspirerades av n&#228;r den &#229;r 1957 blev en sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndig stat och valde ett nytt namn f&#246;r att ers&#228;tta det koloniala namnet <strong>Guldkusten</strong>.</p><p>Den arabiska historikern<strong> al-Bakr&#299; </strong>f&#246;ddes p&#229; 1000-talet i <strong>Al-Andalus</strong>, namnet som muslimerna gav den iberiska halv&#246;n och som de vid den tidpunkten kontrollerade. Enligt honom hade Ghana en matrilinj&#228;r tronf&#246;ljd &#8211; tronen &#228;rvdes allts&#229; inte av kungens son utan av kungens systers son. Enligt al-Bakr&#299; berodde det p&#229; att kungen aldrig kunde vara helt s&#228;ker p&#229; att hans barn var hans egna, medan det inte r&#229;dde n&#229;gon tvivel om att systerns barn hade kungligt blod i sig eftersom hon f&#246;tt dem.</p><p>Ghana s&#228;gs ha varit en milit&#228;r kraft som kunnat producera en stor arm&#233; p&#229; 200 000 man, en arm&#233; man anv&#228;nde f&#246;r att l&#228;gga andra riken och samh&#228;llen under sig. Men p&#229; 1070-talet b&#246;rjade Ghanas makt dala, n&#229;gon som sammanf&#246;ll med almoravidernas framv&#228;xt, en muslimsk dynasti fr&#229;n Nordafrika.</p><p>Historiker &#228;r oense om vad som h&#228;nde med Ghana. Ibland pratas det om att almoraviderna er&#246;vrade Ghana med v&#229;ld, ibland att Ghana av andra anledningar kom under deras inflytande. Klart &#228;r dock att Ghana fortsatte existera i flera hundra &#229;r till, och det verkar som att befolkningen i allt h&#246;gre utstr&#228;ckning konverterade till islam.</p><p>Men Ghanas dagar som ett imperium var f&#246;rbi.</p><h4><strong>Imperiernas cykel</strong></h4><p>Ett imperium &#228;r per definition en stat som genom krig, handel eller politiska man&#246;vrer l&#228;gger andra stater och folkslag under sig. Ibland kan det g&#229; relativt friktionsfritt att styra &#246;ver en s&#229;dan spridd grupp m&#228;nniskor, som kanske talar olika spr&#229;k, ber till olika gudar, kommer ur olika kulturella traditioner.</p><p>Men ofta pr&#228;glas imperier tv&#228;rtom av inre mots&#228;ttningar. Mots&#228;ttningar som, n&#228;r imperiet &#228;r starkt, g&#229;r att hantera. Men n&#228;r imperiet av olika anledningar f&#246;rsvagas &#8211; p&#229; grund av br&#229;k om tronf&#246;ljd, svagt ledarskap, klimatf&#246;r&#228;ndringar, ekonomiska kriser, yttre hot eller annat&#8211; har mots&#228;ttningarna en tendens att koka &#246;ver. Kanske f&#246;rs&#246;ker en av de tidigare sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndiga staterna d&#229; att bryta sig loss. Kanske lyckas den med att &#229;terigen f&#229; sin frihet, och kanske f&#229;r den d&#229; s&#228;llskap av andra kungad&#246;men, stadsstater och folkgrupper som ocks&#229; t&#246;rstar efter sj&#228;lvstyre. P&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt krackelerar imperiet, och splittras &#229;terigen till flera mindre sj&#228;lvbest&#228;mmande regioner.</p><p>Men kanske b&#246;rjar sedan ett av dessa mindre riken att p&#229; nytt<em> </em>l&#228;gga sina grannl&#228;nder under sig. P&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt p&#229;b&#246;rjas imperiecykeln igen.</p><p>I V&#228;stafrikas historia har flera riken haft precis den h&#228;r utvecklingen. Med det f&#246;rsvagade Ghana uppstod ett maktvakuum som fylldes av ett folk och kungad&#246;me k&#228;nt som <strong>Sosso</strong>, &#228;ven dem ett mandefolk. Det h&#228;r var ett rike som under Ghanas glansdagar ing&#229;tt i imperiet men som nu var fritt och hade egna dr&#246;mmar om &#246;kad makt och expandering.</p><p>V&#228;stafrika har en rik tradition av muntligt ber&#228;ttande och central f&#246;r den &#228;r de s&#229; kallade grioterna. De g&#229;r ocks&#229; under namn som jali, djeli eller gewel. Men det som utm&#228;rker dem &#228;r att de &#228;r poeter, lovsjungare, historieber&#228;ttare, historiker och musiker, allt i ett. Det &#228;r genom dessa personer som den muntliga traditionen har bevarats och ber&#228;ttats vidare &#246;ver generationerna i hundratals &#229;r, alltid med instrument i hand, som exempelvis koran eller balafonen. <br><br>Sossos mest k&#228;nda ledare var en kung vid namn <strong>Soumaoro Kant&#233; </strong>och som levde i b&#246;rjan p&#229; 1200-talet. Enligt muntlig tradition ska han ha varit en brutal h&#228;rskare. I grioternas ber&#228;ttelser utm&#229;las han som en ondskefull magiker och i vissa versioner som en demon som r&#246;var bort unga flickor. F&#246;rutom Ghana hade han er&#246;vrat flera n&#228;rliggande kungad&#246;men och utsatte deras folk f&#246;r trakasserier, orimligt h&#246;ga skatter och v&#229;ld.</p><p>I mandinkafolkets Mali, ett av kungad&#246;mena som tvingats lyda under Sosso, hade den lokala ledaren tagit emot en siare. Enligt siaren skulle ledaren gifta sig med en ful eller vanst&#228;lld kvinna som skulle ge honom en son som<em> </em>en dag<em> </em>skulle bli en m&#228;ktig kung. Problemet var att den h&#228;r ledaren redan var gift med en annan kvinna och redan hade en son.</p><p>Enligt ber&#228;ttelsen tr&#228;ffade dock ledaren en kvinna som matchade siarens beskrivning, och med profetian f&#228;rskt i minnet gifte han sig med henne. Sonen som de sedan fick d&#246;ptes till <strong>Sundiata</strong>, men var ett svagt barn som hade problem att g&#229;. Under sin uppv&#228;xt fick han konstant utst&#229; h&#229;n fr&#229;n ledarens f&#246;rsta fru och son.</p><p>Sundiatas tillvaro blev bara v&#228;rre n&#228;r hans pappa dog, eftersom pappans &#246;nskem&#229;l om att Sundiata skulle bli ny ledare inte respekterades. Ist&#228;llet l&#228;t pappans f&#246;rsta fru kr&#246;na sin egen son &#8211; allts&#229; Sundiatas &#228;ldre halvbror. P&#229; grund av fortsatta trakasserier och hot tvingades Sundiata till slut g&#229; i exil i grannlandet Mema.</p><p>I Mema s&#228;gs Sundiata ha g&#229;tt igenom en f&#246;r&#228;ndring, blivit stark som ett lejon och f&#246;rvandlats till en skicklig krigare och j&#228;gare. Samtidigt fortsatte Sossorikets expansion med den onda Soumaoro Kant&#233; i spetsen. </p><p>N&#228;r Kant&#233;s v&#229;ldsv&#229;g svepte &#246;ver Mali s&#228;gs de desperata inv&#229;narna ha skickat ett hemligt s&#228;ndebud till den landsf&#246;rvisade Sundiata och bett honom att &#229;terv&#228;nda. Han s&#228;gs ha bildat en koalition av flera klaner eller mindre kungad&#246;men som under en avg&#246;rande strid &#229;r 1235 slutligen lyckades besegra Kant&#233; och hans arm&#233;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNcq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F950a4018-c98b-4e1e-adb4-768f6195c449_1456x1092.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jNcq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F950a4018-c98b-4e1e-adb4-768f6195c449_1456x1092.heic 424w, 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" 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Enligt legenden var det hit som tyrannen Soumaoro Kant&#233; flydde efter att ha blivit besegrad av Malirikets grundare, Sundiata Keita, 1235.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Efter segern s&#228;gs Sundiata och ledarna f&#246;r hans olika allierade klaner ha samlats under en ceremoni i staden Kangaba. I utbyte mot att ledarna fick varsitt omr&#229;de att styra &#246;ver erk&#228;nde de Sundiata som sin h&#246;gste ledare och tecknade under Kouroukan Fouga, en tidig konstitution. Genom att ena klanerna bildade Sundiata det som skulle bli V&#228;stafrikas nya supermakt &#8211; Maliriket.</p><h4>Malirikets storhetstid</h4><p>Den h&#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen &#228;r ett slags nationalepos och kallas f&#246;r<em> The Epic of Sundiata</em>. Eftersom det r&#246;r sig om en muntlig tradition finns det ingen enskild fastst&#228;lld version och den ber&#228;ttas p&#229; flera olika s&#228;tt.</p><p>Av allt att d&#246;ma var Sundiata Keita sj&#228;lv inte en muslim, eller om han var det verkar han inte ha varit n&#229;gon djupt troende s&#229;dan. I senare versioner av den muntliga legenden p&#229;st&#229;s dock Keita-dynastin, allts&#229; Malirikets styrande familj, h&#228;rstamma fr&#229;n <strong>Bilal ibn Rabah</strong>, en svart man med ursprung i nuvarande <strong>Etiopien</strong> som var en av <strong>profeten Muhammads </strong>allra f&#246;rsta f&#246;ljare och islams f&#246;rsta b&#246;neutropare. </p><p>Att s&#246;ka n&#228;ra kopplingar till tidiga respektabla muslimer var ett vanligt s&#228;tt f&#246;r v&#228;stafrikanska ledare att upph&#246;ja sig sj&#228;lva &#8211; att cementera sin roll som r&#228;ttm&#228;tig h&#228;rskare i en tid d&#229; islam var p&#229; uppg&#229;ng och spreds snabbt i stora delar av v&#228;rlden.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic" width="431" height="718" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MaZl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F247234bb-04ac-4fd4-88e1-f056a5f7a522_431x718.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">1500-talsm&#229;lning f&#246;rest&#228;llande Bilal ibn Rabah, en av profeten Muhammads f&#246;rsta anh&#228;ngarna och islams f&#246;rsta b&#246;neutropare. Malirikets regerande Keita-familj h&#228;vdade periodvis h&#228;rkomst fr&#229;n Bilal.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Oavsett hur troende Sundiata Keita verkligen var &#228;r det klarlagt att Mali som rike kom att bli mer och mer muslimskt. Att konvertera hade uppenbara f&#246;rdelar. Det gjorde bandet starkare till de muslimska handelsm&#228;nnen som kom p&#229; bes&#246;k norrifr&#229;n och det gav &#246;kat skydd mot muslimska slavr&#228;der eftersom det fanns regler, &#229;tminstone i teorin, om att muslimer inte fick f&#246;rslava andra muslimer.</p><p>I bl&#246;jan p&#229; 1300-talet hade europ&#233;er &#228;nnu inte hade lyckats segla ned f&#246;r V&#228;stafrikas kust, och de var d&#228;rf&#246;r tvungna att g&#229; genom muslimerna f&#246;r att ta del av V&#228;stafrikas guld. Det var ju muslimer som dominerade den transsahariska handeln, samma handel som l&#229;ngsamt f&#246;rde guldet norrut.</p><p>Maliriket blev en knutpunkt i n&#228;tverket, precis som det antika Ghana tidigare hade varit. I Maliriket utvann man koppar som man, tillsammans med andra metaller, l&#228;der, bomull och f&#246;rslavade m&#228;nniskor bytte mot guldet som det fanns enorma m&#228;ngder av i l&#228;nderna i s&#246;dra V&#228;stafrika. Efter att ha importerat guldet skeppade Maliriket vidare det man inte beh&#246;vde, norrut mot Nordafrika, Mellan&#246;stern och Europa. &#196;ven kolan&#246;tter var en popul&#228;r vara som Mali importerade s&#246;derifr&#229;n.</p><p>Maliriket storhetstid inf&#246;ll med Mansa Musa, Sundiata Keitas &#228;ttling och mannen som den h&#228;r texten inleddes med. &#8221;Mansa&#8221; &#228;r inget f&#246;rnamn, det &#228;r en titel som betyder ungef&#228;r kung eller kejsare, och det &#228;r inte k&#228;nt exakt n&#228;r han f&#246;ddes. Men han kom till tronen &#229;r 1312 och var en h&#228;ngiven muslim. Det s&#228;gs att den som s&#246;kte audiens hos honom var tvungna att str&#246; sand &#246;ver sitt huvud och sina axlar som ett s&#228;tt att visa v&#246;rdnad och att Mansa Musa aldrig sj&#228;lv pratade n&#228;r han gjorde offentliga framtr&#228;danden. Ist&#228;llet viskade han sina instruktioner till en talesperson som utannonserade hans ord.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic" width="1456" height="891" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:891,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:159084,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MnoH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F380218db-1244-4df8-9403-ec09f360c301_1456x891.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Karta som visar riktningen f&#246;r Mansa Musas pilgrimsf&#228;rd. Av Juan Hernandez, baserat p&#229; en karta av The Block Museum of Art.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Det var i egenskap av just troende som han genomf&#246;rde sin mest ber&#246;mda akt: pilgrimsf&#228;rden till Mekka &#229;r 1324. I den hyllade boken <em>African Dominion </em>sammanfattar den amerikanske historikern <strong>Michael A. Gomez </strong>de olika uppgifterna om hur mycket guld Mansa Musa hade med sig p&#229; f&#228;rden. Han kommer fram till motsvarande 16 ton guld. </p><p> Idag uppskattar man att endast omkring 205 000 ton guld har utvunnits genom hela m&#228;nniskans historia. Och ungef&#228;r h&#228;lften av den m&#228;ngden har utvunnits under de senaste 50 &#229;ren. Att Mansa Musa, under ett och samma tillf&#228;lle, hade med sig 16 ton guld &#228;r allts&#229; en sm&#229;tt ogreppbar siffra och vittnar om hur m&#229;n han var att g&#246;ra ett stort avtryck p&#229; sin v&#228;rld.</p><p>Mansa Musas givmildhet under resans g&#229;ng &#228;r legendarisk och han p&#229;st&#229;s ha str&#246;tt guld omkring sig under f&#228;rden. Dignit&#228;rer, v&#228;rdar, representanter f&#246;r mosk&#233;er, men ocks&#229; vanligt folk och fattiga m&#228;nniskor tog emot v&#228;rdefulla g&#229;vor, och i Kairo s&#228;gs hans frikostighet ha s&#228;nkt v&#228;rdet p&#229; guld under en tio&#229;rsperiod. Det har f&#229;tt medier som <em>Time Magazine </em>och BBC, men ocks&#229; bloggar, poddar och Instagramkonton, att utn&#228;mna Mansa Musa till v&#228;rldens genom tiderna rikaste person.</p><p>Men historiker menar att en s&#229;dan uppgift &#228;r n&#228;stintill om&#246;jlig att verifiera, mycket f&#246;r att inflationen &#246;ver ett s&#229; l&#229;ngt tidspann &#8211; vi pratar ju n&#228;stan 700 &#229;r h&#228;r &#8211; blir sv&#229;rkalkylerat, men ocks&#229; f&#246;r att det finns s&#229; m&#229;nga olika parametrar att bed&#246;ma rikedom utifr&#229;n. </p><p>Personligen vet jag inte hur mycket en s&#229;n titel egentligen spelar roll. Oavsett om han var rikast genom historien eller inte, &#228;r det klarlagt att han f&#246;r sin tid var extremt rik, och det &#228;r intressant nog att notera, s&#228;rskilt med tanke p&#229; den v&#228;sterl&#228;ndska myten som s&#229; l&#228;nge utm&#229;lade Afrika s&#246;der om Sahara som en plats som helt saknade b&#229;de civilisation och v&#228;lst&#229;nd.</p><p>Med all uppm&#228;rksamhet den ber&#246;mda pilgrimsf&#228;rden har f&#229;tt &#228;r det viktigt att po&#228;ngtera att mycket av informationen om den f&#246;rlitar sig p&#229; uppskattningar. Det finns en rad olika skildringar om resan, och m&#229;nga skrevs l&#229;ngt efter&#229;t. De &#228;r, likt alla vittnesm&#229;l, pr&#228;glade av f&#246;rfattarens agenda, erfarenhet och partiskhet. En medeltida historiker kunde exempelvis h&#228;vda att pilgrimsf&#228;rden bestod av 20-, 30- eller 60 000 m&#228;nniskor, men det fanns inget s&#228;tt f&#246;r den historikern att veta med s&#228;kert hur stort Mansa Musas entourage faktiskt var. Det f&#246;rklarar varf&#246;r uppgifterna om f&#228;rden skiljer sig s&#229; mycket &#229;t och understryker varf&#246;r man b&#246;r vara f&#246;rsiktig med att ta siffrorna bokstavligt.</p><div><hr></div><p><strong>En ytterligare instickare:</strong></p><p>Ibland, n&#228;r Afrikas f&#246;rkoloniala historia diskuteras, finns det numera en tendens att glorifiera den tidens ledare, kungad&#246;men och imperier. Det &#228;r f&#246;rst&#229;eligt, s&#228;rskilt eftersom vi alla har matats med myten att det f&#246;rkolonala Afrika endast var en vild plats med avsaknad av civilisation. Det &#228;r d&#228;rf&#246;r p&#229; m&#229;nga s&#228;tt logiskt varf&#246;r vissa m&#228;nniskor vill upph&#246;ja denna f&#246;rkoloniala period och n&#228;stan blir nostalgiska &#246;ver tiden d&#229; "vi" brukade vara kungar, drottningar, kejsare och liknande.</p><p>Men imperier bildas s&#228;llan fredligt. De &#228;r av sin natur produkter av v&#229;ld, krig och er&#246;vring. Och det g&#228;ller f&#246;r Afrika precis som att det g&#228;ller f&#246;r imperier p&#229; andra h&#229;ll i v&#228;rlden. F&#246;r att undvika f&#228;llan att okritiskt inta information om vad dessa "historiens stora m&#228;n" har uppn&#229;tt, &#228;r det v&#228;rt att komma ih&#229;g att imperier &#228;r komplexa. De &#228;r inte enbart av ondo. Men de &#228;r inte uteslutande av godo heller, bara f&#246;r att de fanns i Afrika.</p><div><hr></div><p>Enligt historikern Michael A. Gomez var &#246;verfl&#246;det som Mansa Musa poserade med under sin resa b&#229;de ett led i att visa upp Mali som ett prestigefyllt rike och att tysta eventuella kritiker p&#229; hemmaplan som tvivlade p&#229; huruvida Musa var den r&#228;ttm&#228;tige regenten. Det var ett spektakel f&#246;r b&#229;de en utl&#228;ndsk och inhemsk publik.<br><br>Det finns n&#228;mligen en rad oklarheter om just hur Mansa Musa kom till tronen. M&#229;nga av k&#228;llorna som ber&#228;ttar f&#246;r oss om Mansa Musa &#228;r utl&#228;ndska och kommer fr&#229;n k&#228;nda muslimska d&#229;tida utforskare och historiker som Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Battuta och al-Umari. De inhemska muntliga k&#228;llorna &#228;r misst&#228;nksamt tysta om Mansa Musa, vilket &#228;r anm&#228;rkningsv&#228;rt eftersom det var under hans styre som Maliriket upplevde sin storhetsperiod. Att de lokala d&#229;tida k&#228;llorna knappt omn&#228;mner honom skulle allts&#229; kunna vara en slags tyst protest mot hur han kom till makten.</p><p>Motivet med pilgrimsf&#228;rden kan ocks&#229; ha varit att knyta starkare band till den muslimska v&#228;rlden, vilket kunde inneb&#228;ra b&#229;da skydd och kommersiella m&#246;jligheter. Kanske hoppades Mansa Musa locka utl&#228;ndska bes&#246;kare och &#228;nnu fler handelsm&#228;n till Mali genom att projicera riket som ett land fullt av &#246;verfl&#246;d.</p><p>I Kairo togs Mansa Musa emot av den egyptiske sultanen an-Nasir Muhammad och de d&#229;tida k&#228;llorna ber&#228;ttar n&#229;got olika versioner av hur m&#246;tet gick till. Musa ska ha gett sultanen en g&#229;va p&#229; 50 000 guldmynt och sj&#228;lv tog Musa emot en present best&#229;ende av h&#228;star, kameler, tj&#228;nstem&#228;n och proviant. M&#246;tet verkar allts&#229; ha varit varmt och v&#228;nskapligt.</p><p>Men uppgifter ber&#228;ttar ocks&#229; om att sultanens g&#228;star f&#246;rv&#228;ntades kn&#228;b&#246;ja framf&#246;r honom och kyssa marken. Musa ska ha v&#228;grat med motiveringen att han endast kn&#228;b&#246;jde inf&#246;r Gud. Enligt vissa versioner av ber&#228;ttelsen ska de b&#229;da ledarna d&#228;refter ha suttit sig intill varandra och haft en l&#229;ng konversion, men i andra versioner s&#228;gs det att Musa tvingades st&#229; under hela samtalet, ett maktspel fr&#229;n sultanens h&#229;ll.</p><p>I slut&#228;ndan gick m&#246;tet &#228;nd&#229; v&#228;gen och Musa stannade n&#229;gra m&#229;nader i Kairo innan han fortsatte till Mekka och Medina, d&#228;r han bes&#246;kte profeten Muhammads grav. Det frikostiga spenderandet under resan gjorde att Mansa Musa, p&#229; tillbakav&#228;gen, var tvungen att l&#229;na ihop summan som kr&#228;vdes f&#246;r att ta sig fr&#229;n Kairo till Mali. Igen, han m&#229; ha varit extremt rik, men hans resurser var inte o&#228;ndliga.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic" width="1024" height="817" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:817,&quot;width&quot;:1024,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:326318,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_x1k!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9adfc310-9319-4199-9289-9b9eb22f38e7_1024x817.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Mansa Musa p&#229; den katalanska v&#228;rldskartan 1375.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Mansa Musa var inte den f&#246;rsta v&#228;stafrikanska regenten att genomf&#246;ra pilgrimsf&#228;rden, men han gjorde det p&#229; ett mer spektakul&#228;rt s&#228;tt &#228;n n&#229;gon f&#246;re honom. Resan satte bokstavligen Mali p&#229; den internationella kartan. N&#229;gra decennier efter f&#228;rden avbildades han p&#229; den detaljerade katalanska v&#228;rldskartan fr&#229;n &#229;r 1375. Han &#228;r kl&#228;dd i en flott dr&#228;kt och sitter p&#229; en tron med en krona av guld p&#229; huvudet. I v&#228;nster hand h&#229;ller han i en guldstav och med h&#246;ger hand str&#228;cker han fram en guldklimp mot en kamelryttare som kommer ridandes fr&#229;n sitt &#246;kenl&#228;ger.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic" width="1456" height="475" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:475,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:318080,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!85Xy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F566988dc-5d3b-4332-932e-290f90e44ac1_1456x475.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Den kompletta katalanska v&#228;rldskartan fr&#229;n 1375. Av Abraham Cresques.</figcaption></figure></div><p>Markeringar p&#229; kartan visar sedan hur handelsv&#228;garna r&#246;r sig genom Sahara, &#246;ver Medelhavet och in p&#229; halv&#246;n som idag utg&#246;rs av Spanien och Portugal. Kartan illustrerar hur europ&#233;er i slutet p&#229; 1300-talet s&#229;g framf&#246;r sig den transsahariska handeln. I <em>A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise of the Slave Trade to the Age of Revolution </em>skriver den brittiske historikern <strong>Toby Green</strong> att kartan visar hur Malis kontroll &#246;ver guldet blev sj&#228;lva signumet f&#246;r riket ur ett europeiskt perspektiv.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic" width="910" height="695" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:695,&quot;width&quot;:910,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:98341,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xslf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb6c74d6c-1f59-4092-a04f-a9eeeabced42_910x695.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">N&#228;rbild p&#229; Mansa Musa fr&#229;n den katalanska v&#228;rldskartan.</figcaption></figure></div><p>En annan intressant aspekt av Musas pilgrimsf&#228;rd var att den n&#229;dde Mellan&#246;stern inte l&#229;ngt f&#246;re skjutvapnen blev vanliga i den regionen. Hade han kommit dit aningen senare hade han kanske haft m&#246;jlighet att inf&#246;rskaffa dem, n&#229;got som hade kunnat ge Maliriket en &#228;nnu st&#246;rre f&#246;rdel gentemot sina grannar och f&#246;r&#228;ndrat landets &#246;de i grunden.</p><p>N&#228;r Musa &#229;terv&#228;nde till V&#228;stafrika gjorde han det med den nyvunna respekten som pilgrimsf&#228;rden innebar. De antika och viktiga handelsst&#228;derna Gao och Timbuktu, b&#229;da i nuvarande Mali, inkorporerades i riket. Musa hade &#228;ven med sig flera namnkunniga muslimer med sig hem fr&#229;n f&#228;rden, personer han rekryterat under resans g&#229;ng, och en av dem ritade Djingareybermosk&#233;n som i ombyggd form &#228;n idag fungerar som ett landm&#228;rke i Timbuktu.</p><p>Musa l&#228;t &#228;ven bygga ett kungligt palats. Timbuktu kom senare att utvecklas till ett myllrande handelscentrum som lockade bes&#246;kare fr&#229;n &#228;nd&#229; <strong>Marocko</strong> och Egypten. Mansa Musa la grunden f&#246;r det Timbuktu som senare skulle bli ett framst&#229;ende muslimskt l&#228;ros&#228;te. Under sin guld&#229;lder bildade de tre mosk&#233;erna Djingareyber, Sankore och Sidi Yahya en institution f&#246;r islamiska studier med plats f&#246;r drygt 20 000 elever.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic" width="476" height="640" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:640,&quot;width&quot;:476,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:58337,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nwtn!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa22bcf68-b270-4011-8520-023cd0842dc1_476x640.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ett av de hundratusentals dokument som utg&#246;r Timbuktumanuskripten. Majoriteten av de skrifter som finns kvar och som har unders&#246;kts och arkiverats h&#228;rstammar fr&#229;n 1700-talet och fram&#229;t och best&#229;r av juridiska dokument, qaisadas (vilket &#228;r en slags muslimska dikter), fatwor (allts&#229; en l&#228;rd muslims utl&#229;tande p&#229; en fr&#229;ga) och kopior av Koranen. </figcaption></figure></div><p>Mansa Musas pilgrimsf&#228;rd till Mekka &#228;r den enskilt mest ber&#246;mda h&#228;ndelsen under hela Malirikets existens. Men det finns en annan ber&#228;ttelse, som &#228;r mindre omskriven men minst lika fascinerande. Den historien handlar om Mansa Musas f&#246;retr&#228;dare, en man som l&#229;ngt f&#246;re Christofer Columbus var p&#229;t&#228;nkt, var besatt av id&#233;n att korsa Atlanten.</p><h4><strong>Det maliska f&#246;rs&#246;ket att korsa Atlanten</strong></h4><p>Den enda skriftliga k&#228;llan till ber&#228;ttelsen om Malirikets f&#246;rs&#246;k att ta sig &#246;ver Atlanten kommer fr&#229;n den arabiske historikern al-Umari, f&#246;dd &#229;r 1300 i <strong>Damaskus</strong>. I ett av sina verk &#229;terger al-Umari ett samtal mellan Mansa Musa och Musas v&#228;rd i Kairo, staden han passerade p&#229; v&#228;g till Mekka. V&#228;rden var guvern&#246;ren f&#246;r ett omr&#229;de som heter gamla Kairo, och under samtalet ska han ha fr&#229;gat Mansa Musa hur det kom sig att han blev kung. Enligt al-Umari uppgav Musa att han fick ta &#246;ver tronen n&#228;r hans f&#246;retr&#228;dare l&#228;mnade Maliriket f&#246;r att hitta &#8221;slutet p&#229; Atlanten&#8221;.</p><p>Enligt ber&#228;ttelsen ska den h&#228;r f&#246;reg&#229;ngaren ha l&#229;tit hundratals skepp fyllda med sj&#246;m&#228;n, proviant och guld l&#228;mna V&#228;stafrikas kust. I m&#229;nga moderna &#229;tergivningar, exempelvis p&#229; olika sajter och Instagramkonton, p&#229;st&#229;s ofta att f&#246;reg&#229;ngaren hette <strong>Abu Bakr II</strong>. Men det st&#228;mmer inte, f&#246;r en mansa med det namnet har aldrig regerat i Mali. Misstaget beror sannolikt p&#229; en felaktig &#246;vers&#228;ttning. I sj&#228;lva verket var f&#246;reg&#229;ngaren en kung k&#228;nd som <strong>Mansa Qu</strong>, alternativt hans son <strong>Muhammad ibn Q</strong>.</p><p>Endast ett av skeppen som skickades iv&#228;g &#229;terv&#228;nde, och den &#246;verlevande kaptenen vittnade om att resten av expeditionen f&#246;rsvunnit n&#228;r den n&#229;dde &#8221;en flod med en fruktansv&#228;rd str&#246;m mitt i havet&#8221;.</p><p>Kanske borde Musas f&#246;retr&#228;dare ha avskr&#228;ckts av att hundratals fartyg f&#246;rsvann eller f&#246;rliste, men han var uppenbarligen &#246;vertygad om att kaptenen missf&#246;rst&#229;tt, &#246;verdrivet eller bara inte var kompetent nog. F&#246;r n&#228;sta steg blev helt enkelt att utrusta en ny expedition som han sj&#228;lv ledde. Enligt al-Umari ska den nya expeditionen ha best&#229;tt av 2000 skepp, en siffra som man &#229;terigen f&#229;r ta med en nypa salt.</p><p>Den h&#228;r g&#229;ngen &#229;terv&#228;nde inga av skeppen. Och n&#228;r Maliriket som en f&#246;ljd stod utan kung fick Mansa Musa ta &#246;ver tronen.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic" width="886" height="625" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:625,&quot;width&quot;:886,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:193259,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/i/157881168?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HY2G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4fefc06b-02bc-42f7-8a3d-914103e9f3a1_886x625.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration som f&#246;rest&#228;ller den m&#246;jliga Maliexpeditionen &#246;ver Atlanten. Av Leo &amp; Diane Dillon.</figcaption></figure></div><p>I <em>African Dominion </em>skriver Michael A. Gomez att den h&#228;r fantasifulla ber&#228;ttelsen inte omedelbart kan avf&#228;rdas. Malirikets territorium hade vid det h&#228;r tillf&#228;llet expanderat n&#229;got enormt och n&#229;dde Atlantens str&#228;nder i nuvarande <strong>Senegal</strong> och <strong>Gambia</strong>. Genom historien har det legat i m&#228;nniskans natur att vilja utforska det ok&#228;nda &#8211; exempelvis det som ligger p&#229; andra sidan av ett hav &#8211; och f&#246;r Mali hade det p&#229; m&#229;nga s&#228;tt varit naturligt att vilja forts&#228;tta expandera sitt rike.</p><p>Gomez spekulerar i att den &#8221;fruktansv&#228;rda str&#246;mmen mitt i havet&#8221; kan ha varit en referens till den m&#228;ktiga Kanariestr&#246;mmen. Den r&#246;r sig s&#246;derut fr&#229;n dagens Marocko till Senegal, innan den &#246;verg&#229;r i den Nordatlantiska ekvatorialstr&#246;mmen och flyter v&#228;sterut mot Mexikanska gulfen. D&#228;r g&#229;r den &#246;ver i golfstr&#246;mmen som flyter tillbaka mot Europa och Nordafrika. D&#228;rifr&#229;n flyter str&#246;mmen s&#246;derut och p&#229;b&#246;rjar cykeln igen. Om ber&#228;ttelsen skulle vara helt p&#229;hittad &#8211; om Maliriket aldrig f&#246;rs&#246;kt korsa Atlanten &#8211; menar Gomez att det skulle vara underligt att de hade kunskap om en s&#229;dan specifik sak om hur Atlanten fungerar. </p><p>Han po&#228;ngterar ocks&#229; att de stora m&#228;ngderna guld som p&#229;st&#229;s ha lastats ombord p&#229; b&#229;tarna tyder p&#229; att expeditionen kan ha haft ett kommersiellt syfte, att Malis sj&#246;farare hoppades hitta nya handelspartners eller handelsrutter.</p><p>I sin bok <em>Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War </em>bygger den amerikanske journalisten <strong>Howard W. French </strong>vidare p&#229; teorin och f&#246;resl&#229;r att havs&#228;ventyret kan ha haft syftet att n&#229; Sydeuropa, f&#246;r att p&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt kringg&#229; nordafrikanerna som historiskt fungerat som en mellanhand i handeln mellan Mali och Europa.</p><p>Men trots de intressanta hypoteserna talar det mesta emot att expeditionerna &#228;gde rum. F&#246;r det f&#246;rsta tr&#228;ffade al-Umari aldrig sj&#228;lv Mansa Musa utan f&#246;rlitade sig p&#229; andras vittnesm&#229;l n&#228;r han skrev ner ber&#228;ttelsen m&#229;nga &#229;r efter Musas bes&#246;k i Kairo. F&#246;r det andra var b&#229;tarna som Maliriket troligen hade tillg&#229;ng till p&#229; den h&#228;r tiden knappast l&#228;mpade f&#246;r uppdraget. Fr&#229;n &#214;stafrika hade man sedan l&#228;nge f&#228;rdats genom indiska oceanen med hj&#228;lp av olika sorters segelskepp, men vid Mansa Musas tid &#228;r den allm&#228;nna uppfattningen att man i V&#228;stafrika &#228;nnu inte hade utvecklat n&#229;gra egna segelfartyg.</p><p>Enligt vittnesm&#229;l fr&#229;n tidiga europeiska bes&#246;kare l&#228;ngst den v&#228;stafrikanska kusten &#8211; fr&#229;n &#229;rhundradet efter att Mansa Musa levde &#8211; utgjordes de v&#228;stafrikanska b&#229;tarna av en slags kanoter, visserligen v&#228;ldigt stora, men de passade b&#228;ttre f&#246;r att f&#228;rdas l&#228;ngs floder och kuster snarare &#228;n att korsa hav. I brist p&#229; bevis som tyder p&#229; motsatsen, har historiker antagit att samma typer av kanoter anv&#228;ndes &#228;ven p&#229; Musas tid.</p><p>Det som kanske &#228;r det st&#246;rsta argumentet f&#246;r varf&#246;r &#168;expeditionen inte intr&#228;ffade &#228;r att ett s&#229;dant stort projekt borde ha omn&#228;mnts p&#229; andra h&#229;ll, inom lokal muntlig tradition eller i andra d&#229;tida skriftliga k&#228;llor. Men al-Umaris skriverier &#228;r den enda platsen d&#228;r ber&#228;ttelsen omn&#228;mns. Dessutom har man inte kunnat hitta n&#229;gra arkeologiska fynd som kan styrka att resan, eller ens f&#246;rberedelserna inf&#246;r den, verkligen h&#228;nde. Bristen p&#229; bevis har de senaste decennierna inte hindrat vissa fr&#229;n att &#228;nd&#229; p&#229;st&#229; att resan inte bara &#228;gde rum utan att Malirikets fartyg n&#229;dde fram och p&#229; s&#229; s&#228;tt &#8221;uppt&#228;ckte&#8221; Amerika.</p><p>En m&#246;jlig teori &#228;r att Mansa Musas ber&#228;ttelse om resan &#246;ver Atlanten var en slags t&#228;ckmantel f&#246;r den verkliga anledningen till varf&#246;r han kr&#246;ntes till kung, eftersom hans v&#228;g till makten inte var helt okomplicerad. Hans f&#246;retr&#228;dare &#8211; den tidigare n&#228;mnda Mansa Qu eller Muhammad ibn Q &#8211; kom n&#228;mligen fr&#229;n en annan gren inom den kungliga Keita-familjen, och det finns de historiker som f&#246;rt fram teorin att Musa kan ha r&#246;jt undan dem med v&#229;ld f&#246;r att ta &#246;ver tronen, och att ber&#228;ttelsen om f&#246;rs&#246;ken att korsa Atlanten var p&#229;hittad f&#246;r att d&#246;lja sp&#229;ren.</p><p>En kombination &#228;r ocks&#229; m&#246;jlig. Kanske gjordes ett f&#246;rsta f&#246;rs&#246;k att korsa Atlanten men att den andra var p&#229;hittad. Kanske &#228;r det &#228;ven d&#228;rf&#246;r de inhemska muntliga k&#228;llorna &#228;r s&#229; tysta om Mansa Musa och ist&#228;llet f&#246;redrar att ber&#228;tta om Sundiata Keita, rikets grundare. Men med s&#229; f&#229; k&#228;llor &#228;r det om&#246;jligt att fastst&#228;lla.</p><h4>Ett imperium i s&#246;nderfall</h4><p>Mansa Musa kan inte ha vetat om det sj&#228;lv, men trots att han regerade &#246;ver ett enormt imperium som upplevde sin storhetsperiod, h&#246;ll det m&#228;ktiga Maliriket l&#229;ngsamt p&#229; att krackelera. Successionsordning, vem som ers&#228;tter en regent p&#229; tronen, har alltid varit av st&#246;rsta intresse. Det har ocks&#229; alltid varit en k&#228;lla till oenighet, konflikt, till och med krig. </p><p>I v&#229;ra patriarkala samh&#228;llen har pressen att producera en manlig arvinge historiskt varit stort eftersom det traditionellt varit vanligt med s&#229; kallad agnatisk tronf&#246;ljd, allts&#229; att endast manliga &#228;ttlingar kan &#228;rva den h&#246;gsta titeln. I Sverige inf&#246;rde vi exempelvis full s&#229; kallad kognatisk tronf&#246;ljd f&#246;rst 1980, i samband med kronprinsessan Victorias f&#246;delse. Det betyder att det f&#246;rstf&#246;dde barnet, oavsett k&#246;n, &#228;rver tronen.</p><p>Om det bland europeiska kungligheter ibland har varit ett problem att det saknas en manlig arvinge, har man i V&#228;stafrika generellt haft motsatt problem: de manliga arvingarna har varit f&#246;r m&#229;nga. Inom Islam har man r&#228;tt till upp till fyra fruar, som alla allts&#229; har chans att producera s&#246;ner. Addera dessutom alla &#228;lskarinnor och konkubiner som ocks&#229; kan ge en kung nya pojkar. Till det kan man l&#228;gga till kungens egen familj, som ofta var stor och kunde best&#229; av br&#246;der, farbr&#246;der, till och med kusiner som potentiellt alla hoppades p&#229; att en g&#229;ng f&#229; styra.</p><p>De m&#229;nga manliga arvingarna innebar allts&#229; en grogrund f&#246;r konkurrens och br&#229;k. I samh&#228;llen med enkla och tydliga regler f&#246;r vem fick &#228;rva tronen hade br&#229;ken kunnat undvikas, men i m&#229;nga v&#228;stafrikanska riken saknade man det. Det man ist&#228;llet hade var invecklade regler som kunde tydas och f&#246;rst&#229;s p&#229; flera olika s&#228;tt, vilket bidrog till att m&#229;nga s&#229;g sig som potentiella arvingar. Och Maliriket var inget undantag.</p><p>Mansa Musa h&#228;rskade i 25 &#229;r &#8211; en period av stabilitet. N&#228;r han dog &#229;r 1337 tog hans son <strong>Maghan</strong> &#246;ver som mansa. Men han regerade i bara fyra &#229;r innan Musas bror, <strong>Sulayman</strong>, avsatte honom och argumenterade att han, i egenskap av den &#228;ldste, hade r&#228;tt till makten. Politisk instabilitet tog rot.</p><p>En av Sulaymans fruar var hans kusin, en kvinna k&#228;nd som <strong>Qasa</strong>, och som f&#246;rsta fru hade hon s&#228;rskild status, ungef&#228;r som en drottning, och tillsammans styrde de &#246;ver riket. Men &#246;ver tid gled dem is&#228;r &#8211; Sulayman verkar ha f&#246;redragit en annan kvinna som inte tillh&#246;rde den kungliga familjen. Han s&#228;gs &#228;ven ha f&#228;ngslat Qasa, eller &#229;tminstone ha placerat henne under husarrest. Detta gjorde andra medlemmar av aristokratin och den kungliga familjen ursinniga, framf&#246;rallt de kvinnliga, och protester br&#246;t ut. De fortsatte tills Qasa b&#246;rjade insinuera att Sulayman borde r&#246;jas undan &#8211; ett riskabelt spel &#8211; varp&#229; hennes st&#246;d gick upp i r&#246;k.</p><p>Sulayman styrde i &#246;ver tv&#229; decennier och lyckades h&#229;lla ihop det v&#228;ldiga imperiet. Kring &#229;r 1350 var Maliriket enormt. Den &#246;stliga gr&#228;nsen n&#229;dde n&#228;stan till dagens <strong>Tchad</strong> och <strong>Algeriet</strong>. Den s&#246;dra till de norra delarna av dagens <strong>Burkina Faso </strong>och Elfenbenskusten. Och den v&#228;stra &#228;nda till nuvarande Senegal och Gambia. Upp till femtio miljoner inv&#229;nare tros ha befolkat riket.</p><p>Men i och med Sulaymans d&#246;d skenade allt. Allehanda familjemedlemmar gjorde anspr&#229;k p&#229; tronen, kungarnas styre blev kortvariga och den &#228;n g&#229;ng s&#229; m&#228;ktiga arm&#233;n delades upp mellan olika fraktioner som stred sinsemellan &#246;ver kontrollen. S&#246;derifr&#229;n b&#246;rjade Mossifolket g&#246;ra r&#228;der. I v&#228;st gjorde woloffolket i det som idag &#228;r Senegal uppror och skapade ett eget, sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndigt, kungad&#246;me. Maliriket hade blivit f&#246;r vidstr&#228;ckt, f&#246;r oregerligt. Misslyckandet med att s&#228;kra landgr&#228;nserna gjorde kungad&#246;mena som utgjorde imperiet dj&#228;rvare, och en efter en b&#246;rjade de bryta sig loss.</p><p>Ett av dessa kungad&#246;men, eller statsstater, att g&#246;ra uppror var Gao p&#229; 1430-talet. En av V&#228;stafrikas &#228;ldsta och viktigaste handelsst&#228;der kom nu att &#228;nnu en g&#229;ng bli sj&#228;lvst&#228;ndig. H&#228;r kan vi &#229;terigen sk&#229;da den imperialistiska cykeln. Fr&#229;n 1460-talet, under ledning av en krigisk kung k&#228;nd som Sunni Ali, b&#246;rjade det h&#228;r lilla kungad&#246;met er&#246;vra s&#229; m&#229;nga av sina grannar att det till slut sj&#228;lv blev ett imperium &#8211; det enorma Songhairiket. Till skillnad fr&#229;n Mali, d&#228;r mandinkafolket var i kontroll, skulle Songhai bli en ett mer multietniskt projekt, och v&#228;xa till en stat som dominerade st&#246;rre delen av V&#228;stafrika p&#229; 1500-talet.</p><p>Efter att ha f&#246;rlorat vidstr&#228;ckta territorium till det framv&#228;xande Songhai stapplade ett kraftigt f&#246;rsvagat Mali genom 1500-talet och in p&#229; 1600-talet. Och d&#228;r, under det seklet, upph&#246;rde kungad&#246;met att existera.</p><h4>En underskattad katalysator f&#246;r global f&#246;r&#228;ndring?</h4><p>Mansa Musa lyckades med sitt m&#229;l att projicera Maliriket som ett m&#228;ktigt imperium, v&#228;rd en plats bredvid andra av Medeltidens inflytelserika kungad&#246;men. Tanken p&#229; Mali som en plats dr&#228;nkt i guld gjorde riket k&#228;nt i delar av Europa, Nordafrika och Mellan&#246;stern. F&#246;r m&#228;nniskor i de regionerna blev Mali associerat med handel och rikedom. Men pilgrimsf&#228;rden drog &#228;ven till sig en annan slags uppm&#228;rksamhet.</p><p>P&#229; 1400-talet, bara n&#229;gra decennier efter att Mansa Musa och hans guld synts p&#229; den katalanska v&#228;rldskartan, inleddes det vi kallar f&#246;r uppt&#228;cktsresornas epok. En tid d&#228;r V&#228;steuropa gick fr&#229;n att vara ett f&#246;rh&#229;llandevis obetydligt h&#246;rn av v&#228;rlden, till att f&#229; sitt stora genombrott.</p><p>Tidigare har den europeiska viljan att hitta sj&#246;v&#228;gen till Indien angetts som sk&#228;let till uppt&#228;cktsresornas epok inleddes. Utg&#229;r man fr&#229;n den tanken blir Afrika som ett sidosp&#229;r, ett enda stort hinder som man var tvungen att runda f&#246;r att n&#229; till slutdestinationen. Men i den Born in Blackness argumenterar f&#246;rfattaren Howard W. French f&#246;r att utforskandet av Afrika &#8211; och att f&#229; ta del de enorma rikedomarna som Mansa Musa visat upp &#8211; var ett m&#229;l i sig sj&#228;lvt. Afrika var sitt eget pris, sin egen slutdestination. P&#229; 1400-talet gick portugiserna i br&#228;schen f&#246;r att utforska Afrikas v&#228;stra kust och korrespondensen de l&#228;mnade efter sig vittnar om deras f&#246;rs&#246;k att komma i kontakt med en m&#228;ktig kung som fanns l&#228;ngre in i fastlandet och sas styra &#246;ver rike de kallade f&#246;r &#8221;Melli&#8221;.</p><p>Skriverierna och vittnesm&#229;len om staden Timbuktus v&#228;lst&#229;nd n&#229;dde ocks&#229; Europa och gjorde det till en mytomspunnen plats. Ryktena om stadens v&#228;ldiga rikedomar fick exempelvis <strong>Storbritannien</strong> och <strong>Frankrike</strong> att sponsra expeditioner till det som kom att kallas f&#246;r &#8221;Afrikas Eldorado&#8221; &#228;nda in p&#229; 1800-talet, ovetande om att staden d&#229; sedan l&#228;nge hade spelat ut sin roll som viktig metropol.</p><p>De kan inte ha vetat det d&#229;, men portugisernas utforskande av Afrikas kust p&#229; 1400-talet var p&#229;v&#228;g att f&#246;r&#228;ndra v&#228;rlden i grunden. Den skulle aldrig bli sig lik igen. Och f&#246;r Afrika v&#228;ntade <a href="https://open.spotify.com/episode/4C9yeEQXVwyqqTkVfTkCAb?si=b6fe7294bd8d464d">ett nytt m&#246;rkt kapitel</a>.</p><div><hr></div><div class="captioned-button-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;}" data-component-name="CaptionedButtonToDOM"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Svart historia! This post is public so feel free to share it.</p></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Share&quot;}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://www.svarthistoria.se/p/mali-mansa-musa-and-floden-av-guld?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email&utm_content=share&action=share"><span>Share</span></a></p></div><div><hr></div><h4>L&#228;s mer: </h4><p></p><p><strong>B&#246;cker:</strong></p><p><em>Peoples and Empires of West Africa; West Africa in History, 1000&#8211;1800 </em>av George Stride och Carolina Ifeka (1971)</p><p><em>Ancient and Mali </em>av Nehemia Levtzion (1980)</p><p><em>In Search of Sunjata: The Mande Oral Epic as History, Literature and Performance </em>av Ralph Austen (1999)</p><p><em>Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History </em>av Nehemia Levtzion och J.F.P. Hopkins (2000)</p><p><em>The History of Islam in Africa </em>av Nehemia Levtzion och Randall L. Pouwels (2000)</p><p><em>Medieval West Africa: Views From Arab Scholars and Merchants </em>av Nehemia Levtzion och Jay Spaulding (2003)</p><p><em>Empires of Medieval West Africa </em>av David Conrad (2005)</p><p><em>Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali </em>av Djibril Tamsir Niane (2006)</p><p><em>A Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 1250&#8211;1820 </em>av John K. Thornton (2012)</p><p><em>African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa </em>av Michael A. Gomez (2018)</p><p><em>A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise of the Slave Trade to the Age of Revolution </em>av Toby Green (2019)</p><p><em>Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World </em>by Howard W. French (2021)</p><p><strong>Vetenskapliga artiklar</strong></p><p>&#8221;The Thirteenth- and Fourteenth-Century Kings of Mali&#8221; av Nehemia Levtzion i <em>The Journal of African History </em>(vol. 4, nr 3, 1963)<br><br>&#8221;The Age of Mansa Musa of Mali: Problems in Succession and Chronology&#8221; av Nawal Morcos Bell i <em>The International Journal of African Historical Studies </em>(vol. 5, nr 2, 1972)</p><p>&#8221;The Inland Niger Delta Before the Empire of Mali: Evidence from Jenne-Jeno&#8221; av Roderick J. McIntosh och Susan Keech McIntosh i <em>The Journal of African History </em>(vol. 22, nr 1, 1981)<br><br>"History, Oral Transmission and Structure in Ibn Khaldun's Chronology of Mali Rulers" av Ralph Austen och Jan Jansen i<em> History in Africa</em> (vol. 23, 1996)</p>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>